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- 10 Types of Centrifuge with Principles and Uses
- 14 Types of Chromatography (Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses)
- 16 Types of Microscopes with Parts, Functions, Diagrams
- 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Uses, Diagram
- 18 Instruments used in Microbiology Lab with Principle, Uses
- 22 Types of Spectroscopy with Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
- 24 Differences between Invertebrates and Vertebrates
- 27 Amazing Things Under the Microscope with Diagrams
- 3 Domains of Life (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya)
- 3 Principles of Cell Theory with Historical Journey
- 37 Types of PCR with Definition, Principle, and Uses
- 3D Bioprinting- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications
- 5 Types of Immunoglobulins: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE
- 52 Laboratory Safety Symbols: Signs, Meanings, Examples
- 7 Types of RNA with Structure and Functions
- 8 Types of Centrifugation with Principles and Uses
- A Guide to Ideonella sakaiensis (Plastic-Eating Bacteria)
- Abiotic Factors: Types, Examples & Organism Responses
- Absorption vs. Adsorption: 10 Differences, Examples
- Acetamide Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Acetate Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Acid Fast Stain (Kinyoun-Cold Method)- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Acid Fast Stain- Principle, Reagents, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Acinetobacter baumannii- An Overview
- Acree-Rosenheim Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Acridine Orange Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Actin vs Myosin: Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
- Actinobacteria- An Overview
- Action Potential- Definition, Mechanism, Significances
- Active Immunity vs Passive Immunity- 19 Key Differences
- Active Immunity- Definition, Characteristics, Types, Examples
- Active Immunization- Advantages and Drawbacks
- Active Transport- Definition, Types, Process, Examples
- Active vs. Passive Transport: 18 Differences, Examples
- Acute disease vs Chronic disease- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
- Adrenal Gland- Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Adsorption Chromatography: Principle, Types, Steps, Uses
- Aerobic and Facultatively Anaerobic Gram-Positive Cocci
- Aerobic Respiration- Definition, Steps, ATP Yield, Diagram, Uses
- Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration: 11 Differences, Examples
- Affinity Chromatography: Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Agarose Gel Electrophoresis: Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Agglutination vs. Precipitation: 14 Differences, Examples
- Agglutination: Reactions, Types, Tests, Applications
- Agrobacterium-Mediated Gene Transfer (Transformation) in Plants
- Albert Staining- Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Results, Interpretation
- Alcohol Fermentation (Ethanol): Process, Steps, Uses
- Alkaline Peptone Water- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Alleles: Definition, Types, Features, Applications
- Allosteric Inhibition: Mechanism, Cooperativity, Examples
- Alpha Oxidation: Location, Pathway, Steps, Significance
- Alpha-Actinin: Definition, Structure, Types, Functions
- Alternaria alternata- An Overview
- Alternation of Generations- Life Cycle in Plants
- Alternative pathway of the complement system
- Alternative Splicing- Definition, Mechanism, Types, Uses
- Amensalism (Antagonism) Interaction: Types, Examples
- Amies Transport Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Amino Acids- Properties, Structure, Classification, Functions
- Amoeba proteus- Habitat, Culture and Structures
- Amoeba proteus- Nutrition, Respiration, Excretion, Osmoregulation
- Amphibians vs. Reptiles: 15 Key Differences, Examples
- Amplicon Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Types, Uses, Diagram
- Anabolism vs Catabolism- Definition, 13 Key Differences, Examples
- Anaerobic Blood Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Anaerobic Respiration- Definition, Types, Steps, Equation, Products, Uses
- Analogous Structures: Definition & Evolutionary Examples
- Analytical Balance- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Examples
- Anaphase in Mitosis & Meiosis: Processes & Significance
- Anatomical Barriers of Immune System- Skin and Mucus
- Anatomical Position: Planes, Variations, Applications
- Ancylostoma duodenale- An Overview
- Angiosperm vs. Gymnosperm: 27 Differences, Examples
- Angiosperms- Characteristics, Morphology, Classification, Uses
- Animal Cell Culture: Types, Cell Lines, Procedure, Uses
- Animal Cell Explained: Structure, Parts & Vital Functions
- Animal Kingdom- Definition, Characteristics, Phyla, Examples
- Anisocytosis: Types, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis
- ANOVA: Definition, one-way, two-way, table, examples, uses
- Anthoceros: Structure, Reproduction, Life Cycle, Diagram, Uses
- Anthracnose: Causes, Symptoms, Disease Cycle, Prevention
- Anthrax bacilli vs Anthracoid bacilli- 25 Differences
- Anthrone Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Enterobacteriaceae
- Antibiotic Resistance Genes in MDR/XDR Tuberculosis (TB)
- Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Staphylococcus spp.
- Antibody: Definition, Structure, Types, Forms, Functions
- Anticodon- Definition, Principle, Functions, Examples
- Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Factors, Functions, Mechanism
- Antigen vs Antibody- Definition and 12 Major Differences
- Antigen-Antibody Interaction- Definition, Stages, Types, Examples
- Antigen: Properties, Structure, Types, Examples
- Antigenic Shift vs Antigenic Drift- Definition and 16 Differences
- Antigens: A Comprehensive Guide for Beginners
- Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and Antibacterial Resistance (ABR)
- Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST)- Types and Limitations
- AP Biology Syllabus and Course Description (2020)
- Apex Predators- Definition, Trophic Cascade, Examples
- Apomixis in Plants: Types, Mechanisms, and Examples
- Apomorphy: Definition, Mechanism, Examples, Uses
- Apoptosis- Definition, Pathways, Assay, Examples (vs Necrosis)
- Apple Scab Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Cycle, Epidemiology
- Applications of Transgenic Plants
- Arboreal- Definition, Biomechanics of Trees, Adaptions
- Archaea vs Bacteria- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
- Archaea: Habitat, Characteristics, Classification, Applications
- Are Viruses Living or Non-Living? Or a Borderline
- Area, Scope, and Fields of Epidemiology
- Arteries vs. Veins vs. Capillaries (12 Differences)
- Arteries vs. Veins: 27 Major Differences
- Arteries: Structure, Types, Functions & Common Diseases
- Artificial Selection- Definition, Steps, Examples, Uses
- Ascaris lumbricoides- Digestive, Respiration, Excretory, Nervous System
- Ascaris lumbricoides- Lab Diagnosis, Treatments, Prophylaxis
- Ascaris lumbricoides- Life cycle, Pathogenicity, Clinical Manifestation
- Ascaris lumbricoides: Habitat and Morphology Overview
- Ascent of Sap: Definition, Mechanisms and Theories
- Asexual Reproduction: Features, Types, Examples
- Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction: 16 Differences, Examples
- Ashdown’s Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Aspergillus clavatus- An Overview
- Aspergillus flavus- An Overview
- Aspergillus fumigatus- An Overview
- Aspergillus niger- An Overview
- Assimilation in Biology: Process, Types, Examples
- ATAC-Seq: Principle, Steps, and Applications with Diagram
- Atomic Force Microscope: Principle, Parts, Uses
- ATP Synthase: Structure, Mechanism, Significances
- ATP: Structure, Production, Synthesis, Functions
- Auramine- Rhodamine Staining
- Aurelia (A Jellyfish)- An Overview
- Autoclave: Parts, Principle, Procedure, Types, Uses
- Autoimmune Disease- Definition, Types, and Examples
- Autotroph vs. Heterotroph: 14 Differences, Examples
- Autotrophs- Definition, Types and 4 Examples
- B Cells vs T Cells- Definition and 17 Key Differences
- B Cells: Development, Functions & Role in Immune Response
- Bacillus anthracis- An Overview
- Bacillus cereus food poisoning with foodborne toxins
- Bacillus cereus- An Overview
- Bacillus subtilis- An Overview and Applications
- Bacitracin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Bacteria vs Fungi- Definition, 21 Major Differences, Examples
- Bacteria vs. Virus: 28 Differences with Examples
- Bacterial and Fungal Preservation Methods
- Bacterial Conjugation- Definition, Principle, Process, Examples
- Bacterial Growth and Factors Affecting Growth of Bacteria
- Bacterial growth curve and its significance
- Bacterial Growth Curve Protocol
- Bacterial Spot in Tomatoes and Peppers
- Bacterial Transduction: Definition, Principle, Steps, Examples
- Bacterial Transformation- definition, principle, steps, examples
- Bacteriocins and Lantibiotics: Class, Functions, Examples
- Bacteriophage- Definition, Structure, Life Cycles, Applications, Phage Therapy
- Baird Parker Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Barfoed’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Basophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
- Batch Culture- Definition, Principle, Process, Applications, Limitations
- Batch vs Fed-Batch vs Continuous Culture- 20 Key Differences
- BCYE Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Beer Production- Ingredients, Process, and Method
- Beer-Lambert Law- Definition, Derivation, and Limitations
- Benedict’s Test: Principle, Procedure & Practical Uses
- Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology and Determinative Bacteriology
- Beta (β) Lactamase Test: Principle, Types, Procedure, Results
- Beta Oxidation of Fatty Acid: Steps, Uses, Diagram
- Beta-Lactamase and Ambler classification
- Beyond the Membrane: Understanding Bulk Transport
- Bial’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Bias, Confounding and Interaction in Epidemiology
- Bile Esculin Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Bile Esculin Test- Principle, procedure, results, uses, limitations
- Bile Solubility Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Binary Fission: Steps, Types, Examples (vs. Mitosis)
- Binomial Nomenclature: History, Rules, Examples, Uses
- Biochemical Test and Identification of Bacteria
- Biochemical Test of Acinetobacter baumannii
- Biochemical Test of Actinomyces israelii
- Biochemical Test of Aeromonas caviae
- Biochemical Test of Aeromonas hydrophila
- Biochemical Test of Alcaligenes faecalis subsp. faecalis
- Biochemical Test of Bacillus anthracis
- Biochemical Test of Bacillus cereus
- Biochemical Test of Bacillus subtilis
- Biochemical Test of Bacteroides fragilis
- Biochemical Test of Bifidobacterium bifidum
- Biochemical Test of Bordetella pertussis
- Biochemical Test of Brucella melitensis
- Biochemical Test of Burkholderia cepacia
- Biochemical Test of Burkholderia pseudomallei
- Biochemical Test of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus
- Biochemical Test of Campylobacter jejuni
- Biochemical Test of Chlamydia trachomatis
- Biochemical Test of Citrobacter freundii
- Biochemical Test of Clostridium botulinum
- Biochemical Test of Clostridium difficile
- Biochemical Test of Clostridium perfringens
- Biochemical Test of Clostridium tetani
- Biochemical Test of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
- Biochemical Test of Edwardsiella tarda
- Biochemical Test of Enterobacter aerogenes
- Biochemical Test of Enterobacter cloacae
- Biochemical Test of Enterococcus faecalis
- Biochemical Test of Enterococcus faecium
- Biochemical Test of Escherichia coli (E. coli)
- Biochemical Test of Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis
- Biochemical Test of Fusobacterium necrophorum
- Biochemical Test of Gardnerella vaginalis
- Biochemical Test of Haemophilus aegyptius
- Biochemical Test of Haemophilus influenzae
- Biochemical Test of Haemophilus parainfluenzae
- Biochemical Test of Hafnia alvei
- Biochemical Test of Helicobacter pylori
- Biochemical Test of Kingella kingae
- Biochemical Test of Klebsiella granulomatis
- Biochemical Test of Klebsiella oxytoca
- Biochemical Test of Klebsiella pneumoniae
- Biochemical Test of Lactobacillus spp.
- Biochemical Test of Listeria monocytogenes
- Biochemical Test of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Biochemical Test of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
- Biochemical Test of Proteus mirabilis
- Biochemical Test of Providencia stuartii
- Biochemical Test of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Biochemical Test of Salmonella Typhi
- Biochemical Test of Serratia marcescens
- Biochemical Test of Shigella flexneri
- Biochemical Test of Staphylococcus aureus
- Biochemical Test of Staphylococcus epidermidis
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus agalactiae
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus canis
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus mutans
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Biochemical Test of Streptococcus pyogenes
- Biochemical Test of Vibrio cholerae
- Biochemical Test of Yersinia pestis
- Biodegradation vs. Bioremediation: 6 Differences, Examples
- Biodegradation- Definition, Microbes, Factors, Steps
- Bioengineering, Bioreactor, and Food Technology
- Bioinformatics Databases, Software, and Tools with Uses
- Bioinformatics- Introduction and Applications
- Bioleaching: Microorganisms, Types, Factors, Applications
- Biological Databases- Types and Importance
- Biological Safety Cabinets (BSCs)- Classes with Examples
- Biology Key Stage 4 Syllabus (National Curriculum England)
- Biology of the B Lymphocyte
- Biopesticides- Definition, 3 Types, and Advantages
- Bioplastics: Definition, Types, Uses, Challenges
- Bioreactor: Design, Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Diagram
- Bioremediation: Factors, Types, Advantages, Disadvantages
- Biosafety Cabinets- Definition, Classes (I, II, III) and Types
- Biosafety Levels (BSL-1, BSL-2, BSL-3 and BSL-4)
- Biosphere: Origin, Components, Importance, Examples
- Biotic Factors: Types, Examples & Key Influences
- Biotic vs. Abiotic Factors: 10 Differences, Examples
- Bird Seed Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses, Limitations
- Bismuth Sulphite Agar (BSA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Biuret Test for Protein: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- BLAST in Bioinformatics: Types, Steps & Applications
- Blastocyst- Stages, Significance
- Blastomyces dermatitidis- An Overview
- Blood Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Uses and Hemolysis
- Blood Cells- Definition and Types with Structure and Functions
- Blood Group- Definition, Systems, Types, Significances
- Blood Pressure: Definition, Measurement, Mechanism
- Blood- Components, Formation, Functions, Circulation
- Body Lines of Defense- Innate and Acquired Immunity
- Bone Cells: Types, Structure, Examples, Functions
- Bone Marrow- Types, Structure and Functions
- Bone vs. Cartilage: 15 Major Differences, Examples
- Bordetella pertussis- An Overview
- Borescope in Biology: Definition, Uses, Limitations
- Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme Disease)- An Overview
- Botulism Food Poisoning by Clostridium botulinum
- Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)- Mad Cow Disease
- Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Brain Lipid Extraction Protocol
- Branches of Epidemiology
- Brassicaceae Family: Characteristics, Floral Formula, Diagram
- Breast- Definition, Structure, Functions and Breast Cancer
- Breathing vs. Respiration: 15 Key Differences, Examples
- Brightfield Microscope: Principle, Parts, Applications
- Brilliant Green Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Brucella Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Bryophytes: Characteristics, Life Cycle, Economic Importance
- Budding: Asexual Reproduction in Plants and Hydra
- Buffer and Extraction Buffer- Definition, Components, Significance
- Buffy Coat- Definition, Preparation, Uses
- Bunsen Burner Explained: Principle, Types & Uses
- Burkholderia pseudomallei: An Overview
- Butyrate Disk Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses, Limitations
- Butyric Acid Fermentation- Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
- Calcofluor White Staining- Principle, Procedure, Results, Applications
- Cambridge AS and A Level Biology 9700 Syllabus 2022-2024
- Cambridge IGCSE Biology 0610 Syllabus (2023-2025)
- CAMP Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses, Limitations
- Campylobacter Blood Agar (CVA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Campylobacteriosis- Campylobacter Infection and Food Poisoning
- Cancer Cells: Definition, Morphology, Types, Development
- Candida albicans- An Overview
- Candida glabrata- An Overview
- Candida parapsilosis- An Overview
- Candida tropicalis- An Overview
- Capillaries: Structure, 3 Types, Functions, Diseases
- Capsule Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB)
- Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE)
- Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP)
- Carbapenem-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CRPA)
- Carbapenemases- Definition, Types, Significance, Bacteria
- Carbapenems- Definition, Mechanism, Types, Uses
- Carbohydrate Fermentation Test (Sugar Fermentation Test)
- Carbohydrates: Classification, Structure, Functions
- Carbon Cycle: Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
- Carbon Fixation: Processes, Pathways, and Implications
- Cardiac Cycle and its 5 Phases
- Cardiovascular System Physiology: Cardiac Conduction
- Cartilage Cells: Types, Structure, Examples, Functions
- Cary Blair Transport Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Case-Control Study- Definition, Steps, Advantages, Limitations
- Casein Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Catalase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- CBSE Class 11 Biology Latest Syllabus (2022-2023)
- CBSE Class 11 Biotechnology Latest Syllabus (2022-2023)
- CBSE Class 12 Biology Latest Syllabus (2022-2023)
- CBSE Class 12 Biotechnology Latest Syllabus (2022-2023)
- Cedar Apple Rust: Causes, Symptoms, Life Cycle, Control
- Cell Cycle: Definition, Phases, Regulation, Checkpoints
- Cell Disruption- Definition, Methods, Types, Significance
- Cell Fusion- Types and Significance
- Cell Membrane Inhibitors: Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Cell Membrane: Composition, Structure, Functions
- Cell Organelles: Structures, Functions & Detailed Diagrams
- Cell proliferation- Definition, assay, differentiation, diseases
- Cell Theory- Definition, History, Modern, Exceptions
- Cell Wall (Plant, Fungal, Bacterial): Structure and Functions
- Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibitors: Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Cells of Immune System- Types and Examples
- Cellular Respiration: Equations, Steps, Products, Diagram
- Celsius vs. Fahrenheit Scale: 10 Differences with Examples
- Central Dogma: Replication, Transcription, Translation
- Centrifugal Force vs Centripetal: Key Facts & Examples
- Centrifuge: Principle, Parts, Types, and Applications
- Centrioles and Basal Bodies: Structure, Functions
- Centrioles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Centromere- Definition, Structure, Position, Types, Functions
- Centrosome- Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Cetrimide Agar Test- Principle, Procedures, Results, Uses
- Cetrimide Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Chambers of the Heart: Auricles and Ventricles
- Characteristic of Genetic Code
- Characteristics of Fungi
- Characteristics of Invertebrates with examples
- Charcoal Selective Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Chargaff’s Rules: First and Second Rules, Applications
- Chemical Digestion of Carbohydrate, Protein, Lipid, Nucleic Acid
- Chemical methods of sterilization- Gaseous and Liquid
- Chemical Reactions: Types, Balancing, Factors, Rates
- Chemiosmosis: Definition, Components, Mechanisms, Uses
- Chi-square Test: Formula, Uses, Table, Examples, Uses
- Chiasmata- Definition, Formation, Structure, Significances
- Childbirth (Labor Process)- Features, Stages, Mechanism
- ChIP Sequencing (ChIP-seq): Principle, Steps, Uses, Diagram
- Chlamydia trachomatis- An Overview
- Chlorophyll- Definition, Structure, Types, Biosynthesis, Uses
- Chloroplasts: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Chocolate Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Cholera: A-Level Biology Revision Notes
- Cholesterol structure and synthesis
- CHROMagar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Chromatin: Structure and Microscopic Observation
- Chromatography: Principle, Types, Uses, Diagram
- Chromoblastomycosis (Chromomycosis)- An Overview
- Chromosomal Mutations: Causes, Types & Examples Explained
- Chromosome Mapping: Definition, Types, Importance
- Chromosome vs. Chromatid: 11 Differences, Examples
- Chromosome: History, Cell Division, Mutation, Disorders
- Chromosomes- Definition, Structure, Types, Model, Functions
- Chyluria: Causes, Prevalence, Management, Treatments
- Cilia vs Flagella- Definition and 19 Major Differences
- Cilia: Structure, Formation, Types, Functions, Examples
- CIN Agar: Principle, Composition, Preparation, Uses
- Circulatory system of earthworm
- Citrate Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Citric Acid Production- Microbes, Methods, Steps, Factors
- Cladistics- Definition, Terms, Steps, vs. Phenetics
- Cladogram: Definition, Features & Examples in Phylogenetics
- Classical Pathway of Complement Activation
- Classification of Bacteria on the basis of Nutrition
- Classification of Bacteria: Methods and Criteria Explained
- Classification of Fungi
- Classification of Pteridophytes (6 ways) with Examples
- Classification of virus
- CLED Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Climax Community: Characteristics, Stages, Factors
- Cloning Vectors- Definition, Characteristics, Types, Uses
- Clostridium perfringens Enterotoxins and Food poisoning
- Clostridium perfringens- An Overview
- Clubroot Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Disease Cycle, Control
- Clue Cells and Bacterial Vaginosis
- Coagulase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result, Uses
- Cocci vs. Bacilli: 5 Major Differences with Examples
- Coccidioidomycosis: An Overview
- Coccobacilli: Characteristics and Common Examples
- Coding Strand vs. Template Strand: 6 Key Differences
- Codominance- Definition, Examples in Animals, Humans, Plants
- Codon Chart: Table, Amino Acids & RNA Wheel Explained
- Cold-Blooded vs. Warm-Blooded Animals: 16 Differences, Examples
- ColE1 Plasmid- Definition, Structure, Sites, Applications
- Coliform Bacteria- Characteristics, Examples, Identification
- Collagen Hybridizing Peptide Staining
- Collection and transport of stool specimens
- Colony Counter- Types, Principle, Parts, Uses, Examples
- Colorimeter- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses, Examples
- Coltivirus- An Overview
- Columbia Agar with 5% Sheep Blood- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Column Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Commensalism Interaction- Definition, Types and Examples
- Common Bacteria Causing UTI (Urinary Tract Infection)
- Common Human Infections and Causative Agents
- Common mistakes in Proposal writing
- Common Pathogenic Bacteria Found in Blood
- Common Pathogenic Bacteria Found in Sputum
- Common Pathogenic Bacteria Found in Stool
- Communicable vs Non-communicable Diseases- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples
- Comparative Embryology- Principle, Significance
- Competition Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
- Competitive ELISA Protocol and Animation
- Complement Activation- Classical, Alternative and Lectin Pathways
- Complement Components and its 7 functional categories
- Complement Fixation Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Types
- Complement System and Classical pathway
- Complement- Properties and Nomenclature
- Compound Microscope: Principle, Parts, Uses, Diagram
- Computer-Aided Drug Design (CADD): Types, Uses, Examples, Softwares
- Concentration Gradient: Definition, Factors, Applications
- Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope: Principle, Parts, Uses
- Confocal Microscope: Principle, Parts, Types, Diagram, Uses
- Connective Tissue: Structure, Cells, Types, Functions, Diseases
- Continuous Culture: Principles, Methods, and Application
- Controlled Experiments: Definition, Steps, Results, Uses
- Convergent Evolution- Definition, Causes, Examples, vs. Divergent
- Coomb’s Test- Direct and Indirect Coomb’s Test
- Cori Cycle: Key Steps, Regulations, Importance
- Coronavirus Overview: Structure, Genome & Pathogenesis
- Corynebacterium diphtheriae (Klebs-Löffler bacillus)- An Overview
- Counter Current Immunoelectrophoresis
- Covalent Histone Modification- Definition, Types, Functions
- Coxiella burnetii: Characteristics, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis
- Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus- An Overview
- Cross-Sectional Study: Definition, Types & Applications
- Cryptococcus neoformans- An Overview
- Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV): Causes, Symptoms, Disease Cycle
- Cysticercosis- Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment
- Cystine Glucose Blood Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Cystine Tryptic Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Cytokines vs Chemokines- Definition and 8 Major Differences
- Cytokines- Mechanism of action and Functions
- Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells with diagram
- Cytoplasm: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Cytoskeleton- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Czapek’s Agar (CZA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Darkfield Microscope- Definition, Principle, Uses, Diagram
- Data and its types
- De novo pyrimidine synthesis steps, pathways, uses
- Decarboxylase Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Decomposers in Ecosystems: Types, Roles & Examples
- Degradation and Deterioration
- Dendritic Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- Dengue and Dengue Virus- An Overview
- Denitrification: Definition, Microbes, Factors, Applications
- Deoxycholate Citrate Agar (DCA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Depolarization: Definition, Mechanism, vs. Repolarization
- Descriptive Studies- Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations
- Design of a Fermenter
- Development of Caenorhabditis elegans
- Developmental Biology
- Diarrhea vs Dysentery- Definition and 21 Major Differences
- Dichotomous Key Demystified: Types, Examples & Uses
- Differences between terminologies used in Microbiology
- Different forms of DNA- A form, B form, Z form
- Different Types of COVID-19 Tests with Advantages, Limitations
- Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscope
- Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats
- Digestive System of Earthworms
- Digital Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Examples, Uses
- Dihybrid Cross- Definition, Steps and Process with Examples
- Diploid vs. Haploid: 12 Major Differences, Examples
- Direct Microscopic Counts- Principle, Procedure, Uses
- Disease Control- Methods, Early Detection, and Treatment
- Disease Prevention- Definition, Levels, Approaches, Key Components
- Diseases and Disorders of the female reproductive system
- Diseases and disorders of the male reproductive system
- Disorders and Diseases of the Human Digestive System
- Disruptive Selection: Definition, Examples, Significances
- Dissecting microscope (Stereo or stereoscopic microscope)- Definition, Principle, Parts
- Divergent Evolution- Definition, Causes, Examples
- DNA Cloning: Principle, Steps, Components, Methods, Uses
- DNA Damage and DNA Repair: Types and Mechanism
- DNA Experiments (Griffith & Avery, McCarty, MacLeod & Hershey, Chase)
- DNA Fingerprinting- Principle, Methods, Applications
- DNA Gyrase- Definition, Structure, Reactions, Mechanisms
- DNA Helicases: Structure, Types, Functions, Examples
- DNA Ladders (1 kb, 1 kb plus, 100 bp, 100 bp plus) and Uses
- DNA Library (Genomic, cDNA): Types, Preparation, Uses
- DNA Ligase- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions
- DNA Methylation- Definition, Principle, Significance, Control
- DNA Microarray- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Types
- DNA Polymerase: Properties, Structure, Types, Functions
- DNA Replication vs Transcription- Definition, 23 Differences
- DNA Replication: Enzymes, Mechanism, Steps, Applications
- DNA Sequencing- Definition, Principle, Steps, Types, Uses
- DNA Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- DNA Transcription (RNA Synthesis)- Article, Diagrams and Video
- DNA vs RNA- Definition and 30 Key Differences
- DNA: Properties, Structure, Composition, Types, Functions
- DNase Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Dominant vs. Recessive Traits in Plants, Animals & Humans
- Double Helix Structure of DNA with Diagram
- Drosophila Development: Stages, Significance
- Drying Method of Food Preservation with Types, Examples
- Dutch elm disease (DED): Causes, Life Cycle, Management
- E. coli (Escherichia coli)- An Overview
- E. coli Pathotypes- ETEC, EPEC, EHEC, EAEC, EIEC, DAEC
- E. coli virotypes Food Poisoning, Infection and Illness
- Earthworm- Habit, Habitat, Morphology, Bodywall, Locomotion
- Earthworm- Reproductive System, Copulation, Cocoon formation
- Eastern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- Ebola Virus- An Overview
- Echocardiography (Echo): Principle, Types, Procedure, Uses
- Ecological Niche- Definition, Components, Types, Examples
- Economic Importance (Beneficial and Harmful) of Insects
- Economic Importance of Earthworms
- Ecosystem- Definition, Structure, Factors, Types, Functions
- Ecosystems and Diversity: Components and Functions
- Edible Vaccines: The Future of Immunization
- Egg Cell: Structure, Types, Functions and Oogenesis
- Egg Yolk Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Ehrlich Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Eicosanoids: Definition, classes, functions, synthesis
- Electrocardiogram (ECG): Understanding Heart’s Electrical Activity
- Electron Microscope: Principle, Types, Uses, Labeled Diagram
- Electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) images of SARS-CoV-2
- Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications
- Electron Transport Chain Unveiled: Steps, Products, Diagram
- Electroporation: Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
- Electroporator: Principle, Types, Parts, Uses, Examples
- ELISA Plate Reader (Microplate Reader or Assay Reader)
- ELISA- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Types, Steps, Uses
- EMB Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Embryo Transfer- Definition, Process, Types, Condition
- Embryo- Definition, Plant, and Animal Embryo with Process
- Embryology- History, Theory, Fields, Scope, Careers, Uses
- End Products Of Glycolysis and Fate of Pyruvate
- Endemic Diseases- Definition, Types, Examples, Control
- Endo Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Endocrine System- Definition, Glands, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Endocytosis vs Exocytosis (Similarities and Differences)
- Endocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples
- Endonuclease vs Exonuclease- Definition, 11 Differences, Examples
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Structure and Functions
- Endospore Staining- Types, principle, procedure and Interpretation
- Endosymbiosis- Definition, 5 Examples, Theory, Significances
- Endothelial Cells: Definition, Types, Structure, Functions
- Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)
- Enterobacteriaceae Cultural Characteristics
- Enterobacteriaceae- Definition, Characteristics, Identification
- Enterococcus faecalis: A Comprehensive Guide
- Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)
- Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)
- Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)
- Environment: Definition, Types, Components, Functions
- Environmental Factors affecting Microbial Growth
- Environmental Science and Environmental Studies
- Enzyme Inhibition: An Introduction
- Enzyme Inhibitors- Competitive, Noncompetitive, End-product inhibition
- Enzymes vs. Hormones: 33 Differences, Examples
- Enzymes: Structure, Types, Mechanism, Functions
- Eosinophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
- Epi-Fluorescence Microscopy: Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Epiblast- Development and Significance
- Epidemic: Definition, Causes, Types, and Response
- Epidemiologic Triad: Agent, Host, Environment
- Epidemiological Markers- Phenotypic and Genetic Markers
- Epidemiology: Definition, Components, Scope, History
- Epidermophyton floccosum- An Overview
- Epistasis- Definition, Classes, Types, Examples, Significances
- Epithelial Tissue – Definition, types, functions, examples
- Epithelial vs. Connective Tissue: 15 Differences, Examples
- Epsilometer test (E test)- Principle, Procedure, Results, Advantages
- Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) or Human Herpesvirus 4- An Overview
- Error- Types, Sources, and Control
- Esbach Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Esculin Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- ESKAPE Pathogens and Antimicrobial Resistance
- Ethanol Metabolism: Enzymes, Steps, Reactions
- Etiology and Global burden of UTI- A Systematic Review
- Eubacteria: Characteristics, Structure, Types, Examples
- Euchromatin- Definition, Structure, Functions, Regulation
- Euglena viridis- An overview
- Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic DNA Polymerase
- Eukaryotic DNA Isolation Protocol
- Eukaryotic DNA Replication- Features, Enzymes, Process, Significance
- Eukaryotic Transcription: Enzymes, Features, Steps, Uses
- Eutrophication- Definition, Causes, Types, Process, Examples
- Evolutionary Embryology- Definition, Advent, Theory
- Excretory or Nephridial System of Earthworm
- Exocrine vs. Endocrine Glands: 8 Differences, Examples
- Exocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples
- Exon- Definition, Structure, Splicing, Process of Splicing
- Exotoxins vs. Endotoxins: 29 Major Differences
- Experiments in support and against Spontaneous Generation
- Extrachromosomal Inheritance: Types, Modes, Uses
- Extranuclear Inheritance- Cytoplasmic Factors and Types
- Eye and Ear Microbiota (Microbiome)- Normal Flora of Eye & Ear
- Eyepiece Lens: Definition, Parts, Functions, Care
- Facilitated Diffusion- Definition, principle, factors, examples
- Factors affecting bacterial pathogenicity
- Factors affecting enzyme action and immobilized enzymes
- Factors affecting Immunogenicity
- Factors affecting the growth of microorganisms in food
- Facultative Anaerobes: Characteristics, Examples, Uses
- Fasciola hepatica- Common liver fluke or Sheep liver fluke
- FASTA- Definition, Programs, Working, Steps, Uses
- Fat Cells: Definition, Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Fat soluble vitamins- Vitamin A, D, E and K
- Fatty Acid Synthesis: Pathway and Importance
- Fatty Acids- Definition, Classification, Types, Functions
- Fed-batch Culture- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications, Limitations
- Feedback Mechanism Loop: Definition, Types, Examples
- Feeding mechanism in Paramecium
- Fehling’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Female Reproductive System: Organs, Structure & Functions
- Fermentation- Principle, Types, Applications, Limitations
- Field Trials- Definition, Features, Uses, Strengths, Limitations
- Fields of Microbiology
- Fire Blight Disease: Symptoms, Causes & Effective Control
- Five Kingdom System of Classification
- Flagella Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Flagella: Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples
- Flora vs. Fauna: 12 Major Differences, Examples
- Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses
- Fluid Mosaic Model
- Fluorescence Microscope from LEAM Solution Inc
- Fluorescence Microscope: Principle, Parts, Uses, Examples
- Fluorimetry: Principle, Instrumentation, Factors, Uses
- Folic acid synthesis inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Food Additives and Preservatives: Types, Functions, Examples
- Food and Nutrition: Macronutrients and Micronutrients
- Food Irradiation: Principle of Food Preservation Technique
- Food poisoning by Listeria monocytogenes (Listeriosis)
- Food Preservation method by Low-Temperature Treatment
- Food Preservation- Chemical Preservatives with Types, Examples
- Foodborne Giardiasis- Food Poisoning by Giardia species
- Foodborne Infection by Shigella- Shigellosis Food Poisoning
- Foodborne Viruses- Food Poisoning by Viruses
- Forest Biometrics: Definition, Tools, Methods, Uses
- Forest Economics and Its Implications
- Fossil Pteridophytes: Characteristics, Examples, Diagrams
- Founder Effect: Definition, Examples, Significances
- Fragmentation in Plants, Animals, Fungi, Algae with Examples
- Frameshift Mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Applications, Examples
- Fructose Metabolism (Fructolysis): Steps and Importance
- Functional Foods: Types, Examples, Production, Benefits
- Functions of The Human Digestive System
- Fusarium spp- An Overview
- Fusarium Wilt: Causes, Symptoms, Disease Cycle, Control
- Galactose Metabolism: Enzymes, Steps, Pathways, Uses
- Gamete- Definition, Types, Spermatogenesis, Oogenesis
- Gamma-ray Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses
- Gas Chromatography: Principle, Parts, Steps, Procedure, Uses
- Gas Treatment as a Food Preservation Technique
- Gastrointestinal Amebiasis by Entamoeba histolytica
- Gastrulation- Definition, Process, Factors, Consequences
- Gel Electrophoresis System- Apparatus, Parts, Types, Examples
- Gel Filtration Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Types, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Gel Permeation Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Gelatin Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result, Uses
- Gene Cloning- Requirements, Principle, Steps, Applications
- Gene Delivery Methods- Definition, Types, Uses
- Gene Expression: Stages, Regulations, Methods
- Gene Flow (Plants, Animals, Humans)- Definition, Types, Barriers
- Gene Interactions: Types, Examples, Mapping, Significances
- Gene Pool- Definition, Working, Types, Evolution, Examples
- Gene Prediction- Importance and Methods
- Gene vs. Allele: Definition and 11 Key Differences
- Gene- A Comprehensive Guide
- General Aseptic Techniques in Microbiology Laboratory
- Genes and Loci- A Complete Guide
- Genetic Drift- Definition, Types, Examples
- Genetic Variation- Definition, Causes, Types, Examples
- Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)- Process, Examples
- Genomics (Structural and Functional): Methods, Uses
- Genomics vs. Proteomics: 10 Major Differences
- Genotype- Definition, Genes, Alleles, Genotyping, Network
- Genotypic Ratio: Definition, Calculation & Examples
- Genus Spirogyra – An Overview
- Giardia duodenalis (Giardia lamblia or Giardia intestinalis)
- Giemsa Stain- Principle, Procedure, Results, Interpretation
- Glandular epithelium- definition, structure, functions, examples
- Gluconeogenesis: Steps, Reactions & Significance Explained
- Glycogenesis: Location, Steps, Enzymes, Regulation, Uses
- Glycogenolysis: Location, Steps, Enzymes, Regulation, Uses
- Glycolysis Unveiled: 10 Steps, Enzymes & Diagram
- Golgi Apparatus: Definition, Structure, Functions
- Golgi Body (Golgi Complex): Structure, Functions
- Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions
- Gradualism: The Power of Incremental Change
- Gram Staining: Principle, Procedure & Result Interpretation
- Gram-Negative Bacteria: Structure, Examples & Antibiotic Resistance
- Gram-Positive Bacteria: Characteristics, Examples & Diseases
- Gram-positive cell wall
- Gram-Positive vs Gram-Negative Bacteria- 31 Differences with Examples
- Grocott-Gomori’s Methenamine Silver Staining
- Growth at 42°C Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Guide to Pipettes: Principle, Types & Key Uses
- Gymnosperms- Characteristics, Morphology, Classification, Uses
- Habitat and Morphology of Gardnerella vaginalis
- Habitat and Morphology of Klebsiella pneumoniae
- Habitat and Morphology of Listeria monocytogenes
- Habitat and Morphology of Mycobacterium leprae
- Habitat and Morphology of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- Habitat and Morphology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
- Habitat and Morphology of Shigella dysenteriae
- Habitat and Morphology of Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Habitat vs. Niche: 14 Major Differences, Examples
- Haeckel’s Three kingdom System of Classification
- Hand washing steps and guidelines by WHO and CDC with video
- Hanta Virus- An Overview
- Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
- Heart Embryology- Development of the Heart
- Heart Infusion Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Heart Valves: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Heartbeat Phases and Heart Sound Types
- Heat coagulation test of proteins
- Heat Treatment as a Food Preservation Technique
- Hektoen Enteric Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Helicos Single-Molecule Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Uses
- Heller’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Hemagglutination Assay- Principle, Types, Method, Uses
- Hematopoiesis- Definition, Cells, Growth Factors, Regulation
- Hematoxylin and eosin stain (H and E stain or HE stain)
- Heme Degradation: Location, Enzymes, Steps, Uses
- Heme Synthesis: Location, Enzymes, Steps, Regulation, Uses
- Hemoglobin Explained: Key Types, Functions & Disorders
- Hemolysis of Streptococci- Types and Examples with Images
- Hemorrhage- Definition, Class, Types, Disorders
- Hemostasis- Definition, Mechanism, Significance
- Henderson Hasselbalch Equation: Basics & Real-World Uses
- Hepatitis A Virus- An Overview
- Hepatitis C virus- An Overview
- Hepatitis E Virus- An Overview
- Herbarium: Definition, Importance, 5 Examples
- Heredity- Definition, 3 Theories, and Importance
- Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)- An Overview
- Heterochromatin vs. Euchromatin: 16 Differences, Examples
- Heterologous Chromosomes: Characteristics, Significances
- Heterotrophs- Definition and Types with 4 Examples
- Hi-C Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Process, Uses
- High Throughput Sequencing (HTS): Principle, Steps, Uses, Diagram
- High-Pressure Processing (HPP): Food Preservation
- Hippurate Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- History of Microbiology and Contributors in Microbiology
- Homeostasis Simplified: Types, Examples & Applications
- Homogenizer- Principle, Procedure, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Homologous Chromosomes Unveiled: Key Traits & Significance
- Homology Modeling- Definition, Steps, Diagram, Uses
- Homozygous vs. Heterozygous: 10 Differences, Examples
- Hopkin’s Cole Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Horizontal Gene Transfer in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- Hornworts: Structure, Life Cycle, Examples, Importance
- Host-Parasite Interactions: Types, Mechanisms & Example
- Hot Air Oven: Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Hot Plate- Principle, Parts, Procedure, Types, Uses, Examples
- How to construct a Phylogenetic tree ?
- How viruses cause disease?
- HPLC: Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Diagram
- Human Astrovirus- An Overview
- Human Cardiovascular System- Organs, Functions, Diseases
- Human Circulatory Circuit: Systemic and Pulmonary
- Human Cytomegalovirus- An Overview
- Human Embryo Transfer- Conditions, Types, Procedure
- Human Embryogenesis- Definition, Process, Stages
- Human Heart- Location, Anatomy, Structure, Functions
- Human Male Reproductive System: Organs, Structure, Functions
- Human metapneumovirus and HMPV Infection Explained
- Human Microbiome and Normal Flora Of The Human Body
- Human Papillomavirus (HPV)- An Overview
- Humoral vs Cell mediated Immunity- Definition, 20 Differences
- Hyaline Casts: Structure, Types, Process, Importance
- Hydra: Habit, Habitat, External Morphology, Internal Structures
- Hydra: Locomotion, nutrition, respiration, excretion, nervous system, behaviours
- Hydra: Reproduction (Budding and Sexual), Regeneration, Immortality
- Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Test: Principle, Procedure, Results
- Hydrophilic Molecule: Definition, Examples, Applications
- Hypersensitivity: Types, Mechanisms, and Causes Explained
- Hypotonic Solution: Definition and Examples
- IB Biology Syllabus (Latest Core + Optional Topics)
- Illumina Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Uses, Diagram
- Immune Booster Foods
- Immune Response- Definition, Types, Factors, Examples
- Immunity- Mechanism, Components, and Immunization
- Immunoelectrophoresis: Principle, Procedure & Applications
- Immunofluorescence- Definition, Principle, Types, Uses, Limitations
- Immunoglobulin A (IgA)- Structure, Subclasses and Functions
- Immunoglobulin D (IgD)- Structure and Functions
- Immunoglobulin E (IgE)- Definition, Structure and Functions
- Immunoglobulin G (IgG)- Structure, Subclasses and Functions
- Immunoglobulin M (IgM)- Structure and Functions
- Immunological Techniques- Types and Examples
- Implantation- Process, Events, Significance
- IMViC Test: Principle, Result Chart, Examples, Uses
- In Silico Drug Design- Definition, Methods, Types, Uses
- Incinerator- Principle, Procedure, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Incomplete Dominance vs. Co-dominance: 10 Differences
- Incomplete Dominance- Definition, Mechanism, Examples
- Incubator Uncovered: Types, Uses & Precautions
- Independent vs. Dependent variables: 10 Differences, Examples
- Indirect ELISA- Introduction, Steps, Advantages and Protocol
- Indole Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Induced Fit Model- Definition, Mechanism, Advantages
- Infectious Diseases: A-Level Biology Revision Notes
- Influenza A Virus: An Overview
- Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses
- Inhalation vs. Exhalation: 15 Differences, Examples
- Innate Immune System- An Introduction
- Innate Immunity vs Adaptive Immunity- Definition and 29 Differences
- Innate vs. Acquired Immunity (Definition, Types, Examples)
- Inoculating Loops and Needles- Principle, Parts, Types, Uses
- Integumentary System: Organs, Functions & Common Diseases
- Interphase: Stages, Cell cycle, Diagram, Video
- Introduction to Antibodies with Diagrams
- Introduction to Antigen
- Introduction to B Cells also called B-Lymphocytes
- Introduction to Bioremediation
- Introduction to Carbohydrates
- Introduction to Enzyme Technology
- Introns vs Exons- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
- Introns- Definition, Structure, Functions, Classes, Splicing
- Inverted Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Labeled Diagram, Uses, Worksheet
- Iodine Test: Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Ion Exchange Chromatography: Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Ion Torrent Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Method, Uses, Diagram
- Iron-Hematoxylin Staining
- Isatin Test- Definition, Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Isolation of Actinomycetes from Soil sample
- Isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) from Soil sample
- Isolation of Mitochondria from Plants, Yeast Cells, Mice, Cell Culture
- Japanese Encephalitis (JE) Virus- An Overview
- Karyotyping- Definition, Procedure, Steps, Applications
- Ketones in urine (ketonuria) and Ketones in urine test
- KIA Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Kirby Bauer Disc Diffusion Method For Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing
- Klebsiella pneumoniae- Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention
- Klebsiella pneumoniae- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestations
- Koch’s postulates and its limitations
- KOH Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Krebs Cycle: Steps, Enzymes, Energy Production, Diagram
- Laboratory diagnosis of Bacterial vaginosis caused by Gardnerella vaginalis
- Laboratory diagnosis of Legionella pneumophila
- Laboratory diagnosis of Leprosy caused by Mycobacterium leprae
- Laboratory diagnosis of Listeriosis caused by Listeria monocytogenes
- Laboratory diagnosis of Syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum
- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Francisella tularensis
- Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Leptospira interrogans
- Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Rickettsia rickettsii
- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Shigella dysenteriae
- Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Laboratory Incubator: Principle, Procedure, Examples
- Laboratory Refrigerators and Freezers- Principle, Parts, Types, Examples
- Lac operon- Definition, structure, Inducers, diagram
- Lactobacilli MRS Broth- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Lactobacillus acidophilus- An Overview
- Lactophenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) Staining
- Laminar Flow Hood/Cabinet: Parts, Principle, Types, Uses
- LAP Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Lassa Virus- An Overview
- Late Blight Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Cycle, Control
- Latex Agglutination Test
- Layers of the Heart: Epicardium, Myocardium, Endocardium
- Lead Sulfide Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Leaf Starch Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Lecithinase Test (Nagler’s Reaction): Principle, Procedure, Results
- Lectin Pathway of the complement system
- Leishmania donovani- Habitat, Morphology and Life Cycle
- Levinthal’s Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Lichens: Characteristics, Types, Structure, Reproduction, Uses
- Light Microscope vs Electron Microscope- 36 Major Differences
- Light Microscope: Principle, Types, Parts, Diagram
- Light Reaction and Dark Reaction of Photosynthesis
- Lineweaver–Burk Plot
- Linkage- Characteristics, Types and Significance
- Lipid Hydrolysis Test (Lipase Test)- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Lipids: Properties, Structure, Classification, Types, Functions
- List of Myxobacteria species discovered (Updated 2025)
- Litmus Milk Medium Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results
- Liverworts: Characteristics, Reproduction, Economic Importance
- Lock and Key Model- Mode of Action of Enzymes
- Loeffler Medium- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Long-Read Sequencing: Principle, Types, Process, Uses
- Louis Pasteur and his contributions
- Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) Media- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Lower and Higher Invertebrates with their differences
- Lungs- Definition, Structure, Location, Functions, Diseases
- Lycopodium (Clubmoss): Structure, Reproduction, Uses
- Lymph Nodes- Structure and Functions
- Lymphatic System- Organs, Functions, Diseases
- Lymphocytes- Types and Functions
- Lysine Iron Agar (LIA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Lysine Iron Agar Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Lysosomes: Structure, Functions, Diagram
- MacConkey Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats
- Macrophages: Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- Magnetic Stirrer- Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Major Histocompatibility Complex I- Structure, Mechanism, Functions
- Major Histocompatibility Complex II- Structure, Mechanism and Functions
- Malaria (Plasmodium): A-Level Biology Revision Notes
- Malnutrition in Nepal with 5 major causes of high rate
- Malonate Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results
- Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Marchantia: Structure, Reproduction, Life Cycle, Importance
- Marine Ecosystem and its Abiotic and Biotic Components
- Marine Microorganisms (Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoans, Microalgae)
- Martin Lewis Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Mass Spectrometry Explained: Principle, Steps & Uses
- Massively Parallel Sequencing (MPS): Principle, Steps, Uses
- Masson’s Trichrome Staining
- Mast Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
- Mate-Pair Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Applications, Diagram
- McFarland Standards- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations
- MCH Blood Test- Definition, Calculation, Results, High and Low MCH value
- Measles Virus- An Overview
- Measures of Association and Effects in Epidemiology
- Measures of Disease Frequency in Epidemiology
- Megasporogenesis: Process, Types, Stages, Significance
- Meiosis: Phases, Stages, Applications with Diagram
- Membrane Carbohydrates: Types, Structure, Functions
- Membrane Lipids: Composition, Structure, Functions
- Membrane Proteins: Structure, Types & Functions Explained
- Mendel’s 3 Laws (Segregation, Independent Assortment, Dominance)
- Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment: Definition & Examples
- Mendel’s Law of Segregation- Definition, Examples, Limitations
- Mendel’s Law of Dominance- Definition, Examples, Limitations
- Mendelian Inheritance: Mendelism or Mendelian Genetics
- Meningitis vs Encephalitis- Definition and 17 Differences
- Menstrual Cycle- Definition, Hormones, Phases, Diagram
- Meristem Culture Technique with Method and Uses
- Mesophiles: Definition, Habitat, Examples, Advantages
- Mesothelioma Cancer
- Messenger RNA (mRNA)- Definition, Structure, Processing, Types, Functions
- Metagenomics: Principle, Types, Steps, Uses, Examples, Diagram
- Metaphase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Metaphase 1 and 2)
- Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
- Methyl Red (MR) Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Methylation Sequencing: Principle, Methods, Steps, Uses, Diagram
- MHC Class I vs Class II- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
- MHC Class I, Class II, Antigen Processing, And Presentation
- MHC Molecule and Autoimmunity with Examples and Diagrams
- MHC Molecules- Definition, Properties, Class, Types, Pathways
- Microbial Biotechnology in Environmental Applications
- Microbial Culture Media: Types, Examples, Uses
- Microbial degradation of cellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of chitin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of hemicellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of lignin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial degradation of pectin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
- Microbial Food Spoilage- Types of microorganisms with examples
- Microbial Growth and Nutrition
- Microbial interaction and its types with examples
- Microbial Production of Penicillin- Definition, Biosynthesis, Process, Uses
- Microbial spoilage and preservation of cereal and cereal products
- Microbial spoilage of Beverages and their preservation
- Microbial Spoilage of Canned Foods: Causes & Prevention
- Microbial spoilage of egg and egg products
- Microbial spoilage of fish and fish products and its preservation
- Microbial spoilage of meat and meat products
- Microbial Spoilage of Milk and Milk Products (Cream, Butter, Cheese, Yoghurt, Ice-cream)
- Microbiological Risk Assessment: Types and Applications
- Microbiology History and Scientists with their Discoveries
- Microbiology of Extreme Environments (Types and Examples)
- Microbiology Terms and Terminology with Definitions
- Microbiology: History, Branches, Career Opportunities
- Microbiome Sequencing for Understanding Microbial Diversity
- Microdase (Modified Oxidase) Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Microfilaments- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Microinjection: Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
- Microorganisms found in soil with effects and examples
- Micropipette: Types, Parts, Working, Uses, 5 Examples
- Microplastic Contamination in Environment
- Microprojectile Bombardment: Principle, Steps, Uses
- Micropropagation: Stages, Types, Applications
- Microscope Condenser: Structure, Types, Functions
- Microscope Diaphragm: Types, Functions & Adjustment Tips
- Microscopy: History, Classification, and Terms
- Microsporogenesis: Process, Stages, and Significance
- Microsporum spp- An Overview
- Microtubules: Structure, Composition, Functions
- Microvilli: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagram
- Middlebrook Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Milk Pasteurization- Definition, Methods, Steps, Significance
- Millon’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Missense Mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Types, Examples
- Mitochondria: Properties, Structure, Functions
- Mitochondrial DNA analysis as a Forensic Tool
- Mitosis vs. Meiosis: 32 Major Key Differences
- Mitosis: Phases, Applications & Diagrams Explained
- Mode of Transmission of Diseases- Direct and Indirect Transmission
- Modified Hodge Test (MHT)- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Modified Thayer Martin Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Molisch Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Monoclonal Antibodies- Definition, Types, Production, Applications
- Monocot vs. Dicot Flower: Structure, 6 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Leaves: Structure, 13 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Roots: Structure, 18 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Seed: Structure, 10 Differences, Examples
- Monocot vs. Dicot Stem: Structure, 22 Differences, Examples
- Monocots vs. Dicots: 26 Differences, Examples
- Monocytes- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Subsets, Functions
- Monohybrid Cross: Definition, Steps & Examples Explained
- Monomers: Types, Examples, Classification, Uses
- Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides
- Morphology of Bacteria- Sizes, Shapes, Arrangements, Examples
- Morula- Stage, Development, Significance
- Mosses (Bryopsida): Characteristics, Reproduction, Uses
- Most Probable Number (MPN) Test for Water Quality
- Motility Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results, Limitation
- MPV Blood Test- Definition, Calculation, Results, High and Low MPV value
- MRS Broth Test- Principle, Procedure and Results
- Mucic Acid Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Mucormycosis (The black fungus)- An Overview
- Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissues (MALT)
- Mucous Membrane: Structure, Location, Functions, Disorders
- Mueller Hinton Agar (MHA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- MUG Test- Objective, Principle, Procedure, Result, Limitations
- Multiphoton Microscopy: Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Multiple Alleles: Definition, Characteristics, Examples
- Mumps Virus- An Overview
- Muscle Cells: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Muscle Contraction: Definition, Proteins, Types, Steps
- Mutagens- Definition, Types (Physical, Chemical, Biological)
- Mutation: Causes, Mechanisms, Agents and Significance
- Mutualism Interaction- Definition, Symbiosis, Types and Examples
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis- An Overview
- Mycolic acid biosynthesis inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Mycology VIVA Question and Answer
- Mycorrhiza: Definition, Types and Significances
- Natural Killer (NK) Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
- Natural Selection: Definition, Theory, Types & Examples
- Natural vs. Artificial Selection: 17 Key Differences, Examples
- NEB Class 11 Biology (Botany+Zoology) Latest Syllabus (Nepal)
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- Negative staining of Viruses
- Negative Staining- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Neglected Tropical Diseases: An Overview with Examples
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention
- Neisseria meningitidis vs Neisseria gonorrhoeae- 32 Differences
- Nephron- Definition, Structure, Physiology, Functions
- Nerve Cells (Neurons): Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Nervous System of Earthworm
- Neural Integration: Temporal and Spatial Summation
- Neutralization Test- Definition, Principle, Types, Procedure, Results
- Neutrophils Unveiled: Structure, Count & Key Functions
- New York City Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)- Definition, Types
- Ninhydrin Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Nipah Virus (NiV)- An Overview
- Nitrate Reduction Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Nitrification vs. Denitrification: 15 Differences, Examples
- Nitrite Reduction Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Limitations
- Nitrogen Cycle- Definition, Steps, Process, Significance
- Nitroprusside Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- NMR Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Steps, Parts, Uses
- Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Data
- Non-Mendelian Inheritance
- Non-Specific Immune Response
- Nonsense Mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Applications, Examples
- Normal Flora (Microbiota) of Mouth and Gastrointestinal Tract
- Normal Flora of Skin, Hair, and Nail- Human Skin Microbiome
- Northern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- Norwalk Virus (Norovirus)- An Overview
- Nosocomial Infections (Hospital-Acquired Infections)
- Novobiocin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Nucleic Acids- Nucleosides and Nucleotides
- Nucleoside- Definition, Types, Structure, Functions
- Nucleotide Databases- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Nucleotide: Structure, Types, and Biological Functions
- Nucleus: Definition, Structure, Parts, Functions, Diagram
- Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis with 9 differences
- Nutrient Agar- Principle, Composition, Preparation, Results, Uses
- O antigen and H antigen- Definition and 21 Key Differences
- Objective Lenses: Types, Parts, Magnification, Uses, Care
- Ocean (Marine) Habitats: Definition, Types, Examples
- OF Test- Oxidation/Oxidative-Fermentation/Fermentative Test
- Okazaki Fragments: Definition, Formation & Importance
- Omega Oxidation of Fatty Acids: Enzymes, Steps, Reactions
- Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Functions, Sources, Types, Benefits
- Oncogenic Viruses- An Overview
- ONPG Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Oogenesis / Ovulation / Ovarian cycle- Definition, Phages, Process
- Opsonization- Definition, Mechanism, Opsonins, Examples
- Optochin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Organelles of Plant and Animal
- Organic waste recycling (methods, steps, significance, barriers)
- Organisms and their Classification
- Osazone Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Osmosis: Definition, Types, Examples (Osmosis vs Diffusion)
- Osmunda: Morphology, Characteristics, Reproductions, Uses
- Ouchterlony Double Immunodiffusion technique
- Outbreak Investigations- Objectives, Steps, Difficulties
- Oviparous vs. Viviparous: 11 Differences, Examples
- Oxford Nanopore Sequencing: Principle, Protocol, Uses, Diagram
- Oxidase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Oxidative Phosphorylation: Enzymes, Factors, Steps
- Oxygen Release in Photosynthesis Protocol
- Ozone Treatment as a Food Preservation Technique
- P Value: Definition, Formula, Table, Calculator, Significance
- PacBio Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Types, Uses, Diagram
- Paired-End Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Uses
- Pancreas: Structure, Hormones, Functions & Disorders
- Pancreatic Cells: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Pandemic- Definition, Features, Causes, Effects, Examples
- Papanicolaou Staining (Pap stain) for Pap Smear / Pap Test
- Paper Chromatography- Definition, Types, Principle, Steps, Uses
- Paramecium caudatum- Habitat, Culture, Structure, Locomotion
- Paraphyletic- Definition, Group, Classification, Examples
- Parasitism Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
- Parasitology VIVA Question and Answer
- Parasitology: Introduction, Branches, and Significance
- Parathyroid Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Parenchyma Cell- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions
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- Passive Immunity- Definition, Characteristics, Types, Examples
- Passive immunization with advantages and drawbacks
- Passive Transport: Features, Types, Functions
- Pasteurization- Definition, Types, Process, Comparison, Uses
- Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestation of Gardenerella vaginalis
- Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
- Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Francisella tularensis
- Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Leptospira interrogans
- Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Mycobacterium leprae
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- Pauly’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
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- PCR Machine- Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses, Examples
- PCR- Definition, Principle, Enzymes, Steps, Types, Uses
- PDA- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Pedigree Chart- Definition, Interpretation, Symbols, Significances
- Penicillium chrysogenum- An Overview
- Pentose Phosphate Pathway: Steps, Diagram, Uses
- Pentose Sugar: Classification, Structural Forms, Uses
- Peptide Bond- Definition, Formation, Degradation, Examples
- Peptone Water- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Peptone Yeast Extract Glucose Broth
- Pericardium: Definition, Structure, Functions, Diseases
- Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) Staining
- Peroxisomes- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Petri Dish: Definition, Parts, Types, Uses, 4 Examples
- pH Meter: Principle, Parts, Procedure, Types, Uses, Examples
- Phagocytosis- definition, mechanism, steps with example
- Phase Contrast Microscopy- Definition, Principle, Parts, Uses
- Phenotype vs. Genotype: 10 Differences, Examples
- Phenotype- Definition, Expression, Types, Examples, Significance
- Phenotypic Ratio- Definition, Calculation, Significances, Examples
- Phenylalanine Deaminase Test- Principle, Procedure, Results
- Phosphoketolase (Heterolactic) Pathway: Steps, Reactions
- Phospholipid Bilayer- Structure, Types, Properties, Functions
- Phosphorus Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
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- Photosynthesis Process: Steps, Equation & Diagram
- Phyllosphere microorganisms- Examples, Factors, Effects
- Phylogenetic Tree- Definition, Types, Steps, Methods, Uses
- Phylum Annelida- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Arthropoda- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Aschelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Ctenophora: Characteristics, Classification, Examples
- Phylum Echinodermata- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Hemichordata- Characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Mollusca- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Nematoda- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Platyhelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples
- Phylum Porifera- Characteristics, classification, examples
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- Physiological barriers of immune system
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- Phytochemicals: Types, Examples, and Health Benefits
- Phytoplankton vs. Zooplankton: 16 Differences, Examples
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- Plant Roots: Structure, Types & Essential Functions
- Plant Taxonomy: Definition, Terms, Classifications
- Plant Tissue Culture: Definition, Media, Steps, Types, Uses
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- Plasma Proteins: Definition, Structure, Functions
- Plasmids- Definition, Properties, Structure, Types, Functions, Examples
- Plasmodesmata: Structure, Types, Functions, Diagram
- Plasmodium vivax vs Plasmodium falciparum- 40 Differences
- Plasmodium vivax- Habitat, Characteristics, Structure, Life cycle
- Plasmodium vivax- Life Cycle in Man and in Mosquito
- Plasmolysis: Types, Forms, Examples, Significance
- Plastids- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram
- Plate Count Agar (PCA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Platelets (Thrombocytes)- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
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- Pocket Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Uses
- Point mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Types, Examples, Applications
- Polio Virus- An Overview
- Pollen-Pistil Interaction: Key Processes and Significance
- Pollination vs. Fertilization: 12 Differences, Examples
- Pollination: Types, Agents, Process, and Importance
- Polony Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Uses, Diagram
- Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)
- Polygenic Inheritance: Definition, Characteristics, Examples
- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)- Principle, Steps, Applications
- Positive and Negative Predictive Value- Definition and Significance
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- Post Translational Modification- Definition, Processing
- Post-Fertilization in Plants: Seed and Fruit Development
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- Prebiotics: Sources, Mechanisms, Types, Functions
- Precipitation Reaction- Definition, Principle, Steps, Types, Uses
- Predation Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
- Preservation of egg and egg products from microbial spoilage
- Preservation of meat and meat products from microbial spoilage
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- Primary Consumers in Ecosystems: Roles & Examples
- Primary Data and Secondary Data
- Primary Databases- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Primary Succession: Stages, Examples & Ecological Importance
- Primary vs Secondary Immune Response- 12 Differences
- Primary vs Secondary Metabolites- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples
- Primary vs. Secondary Succession: 12 Differences, Examples
- Primer- Definition, Types, Primer Design Online Tools, Uses
- Principles of Diagnosis with Medical Microbiology
- Probiotics: Properties, Sources, Mechanisms, Types, Uses
- Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes (47 Key Differences)
- Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic RNA Polymerase
- Prokaryotic DNA Replication- Enzymes, Steps and Significance
- Prokaryotic Transcription- Enzymes, Steps, Significance
- Prokaryotic Translation with Enzymes, Sites, Steps
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- Prophase in mitosis and meiosis (Prophase 1 and 2)
- Protein Databases- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Protein Structure- Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary
- Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes- Definition, Enzymes and Process
- Protein Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- Protein Synthesis: Enzymes, Sites, Steps, Inhibitors
- Proteins: Properties, Structure, Types, Functions
- Proteomics of Bacillus subtilis: An Overview
- Proteomics of Corynebacterium glutamicum
- Proteomics of Lactococcus lactis: An Overview
- Proteomics: Types, Methods, Steps, Applications
- Protocol of chloroplast isolation
- Protocol: Phenol-chloroform extraction of prokaryotic DNA
- Protocooperation Interaction- Definition and Examples
- Protozoa- Definition, Characteristics, Classification, Examples
- Protozoa: Locomotory organelles and locomotion methods
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Overview, Pathogenesis & Treatment
- Pseudomonas putida- An Overview
- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Pteridophytes Life Cycle with Economic Importance
- Pteris (Brake Fern): Morphology, Characteristics, Reproduction, Uses
- pUC19 Vector- Definition, Structure, Sites, Applications
- Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)
- Punnett Square- Definition, Types, Application, Examples, Limitations
- Purine Synthesis
- Purine- Structure, Types, Derivatives, Modification, Effects
- Pus- Definition, Formation, Types of Pus Cells, Significance
- PYR Test: Principle, Media, Steps, Results, Uses
- Pyramid of energy- Definition, Levels, Importance, Examples
- Pyrimidine- Definition, Properties, Structure, Uses
- Pyrosequencing: Principle, Steps, Reactions, Types, Uses, Diagram
- Pyruvate Broth Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Python for Bioinformatics: Tools, Applications, Examples
- Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data: 13 Differences, Examples
- Questionnaire method of data collection
- Questionnaire- Types, Format, Questions
- Questionnaires and Schedules
- R for Bioinformatics: Tools, Applications, Examples
- Rabies Virus- An Overview
- Radial Immunodiffusion- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Radioimmunoassay (RIA): Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Randomized Controlled Trial (RCTs)- Definition, Features, Principle, Steps
- Rapid Method for Enumeration of E. coli Biotype I
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- RBC vs WBC- Definition and 19 Major Differences
- Real-Time PCR: Principle, Process, Markers, Uses
- Recombinant DNA Technology- Definition, Steps, Applications
- Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Structure, Life Cycle, Functions
- Reducing Sugars- Definition, Characteristics, Examples, Uses
- Reflex Arc: Definition, Components, Functions
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- Regulation of Translation in Eukaryotes
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- Reproductive Isolation: Pre-zygotic, Post-zygotic, Genetics
- Reproductive System of Ascaris lumbricoides
- Respiratory Microbiota- Normal Flora of Respiratory Tract
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)- An Overview
- Restriction Enzyme (Restriction Endonuclease)
- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
- Reverse Vaccinology: Principle, History, Methods, Uses
- Rh Blood Group System
- Rhizopus spp- An Overview
- Rhizospheric microorganisms and effects, PGPR and Mycorrhiza
- Rib Cage: Anatomy, Parts, Bones, Structures, Functions
- Ribosomes: Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram
- Riccia: Structure, Life Cycle, Reproduction, Importance
- Rickettsia Infection- Tick-Borne Rickettsioses And Spotted Fever
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- RNA Isolation Protocol
- RNA Polymerase: Properties, Structure, Types, Functions
- RNA Sequencing- Definition, Principle, Steps, Types, Uses
- RNA Splicing- Definition, process, mechanism, types, errors, uses
- RNA Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
- RNA: Properties, Structure, Composition, Types, Functions
- Robert Koch and Koch’s Postulates
- Rocket Immunoelectrophoresis- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Romanowsky Stains- Principle, Types, Applications
- Root-Knot Disease: Causes, Symptoms & Control Methods
- Rotavirus- An Overview
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Structure, Functions
- Rough ER vs Smooth ER- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
- RT-PCR: Definition, Principle, Enzymes, Types, Steps, Uses
- Sagittal Plane: Definition, Regions, Movement, Applications
- Sakaguchi Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Salmonella Shigella (SS) Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Salmonellosis- Food Infection and Food Poisoning by Salmonella
- Salt Saturation Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Salt Tolerance Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Sample collection and Diagnosis of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2)
- Sandwich (Davson–Danielli) model of cell membrane
- Sandwich ELISA- Steps and Advantages
- Sanger Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Applications, Diagram
- Sarcomere: Structure, Function & Role in Muscle Contraction
- SARS-CoV-2 Structure & Genome: Key Proteins & RNA Features
- Satellitism Test: Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids- Definition, 20 Differences, Examples
- Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): Principle, Parts, Uses
- Scientific Method: Definition, Steps, Examples, Uses
- Scientific Name- Definition, Rules, Examples, Nomenclature
- Scope and Applications of Microbiology in 2024
- Scope of Biotechnology with Branches and Careers
- SDA: Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Seafood Toxins and Fish & Shellfish Poisoning
- Secondary Databases- Definition, Types, Examples, Uses
- Secondary Succession: Stages, Examples & Ecological Importance
- Secretory Vesicles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Seed- Definition, Types, Structure, Development, Dispersal, Uses
- Selaginella (Spikemoss): Morphology, Reproduction, Uses
- Selective Reabsorption- Definition, Parts, Process, Diagram
- Selenite F Broth- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Seliwanoff’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Semiconductor Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Uses
- Semiconservative DNA Replication in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- Semilunar valves- Definition, Anatomy, Types, Dysfunction
- Sense Organs of Earthworm
- Sensitivity and Specificity- Definition, Formula, Calculation, Relationship
- Sequence Alignment- Definition, Types, Methods, Uses
- Serial Dilution: Formula, Calculator, Method, Uses, Examples
- Serratia marcescens- An Overview
- Serum vs. Plasma (17 Major Differences)
- Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV)
- Sex-linked Inheritance: Characteristics, Disorders, Examples
- Sexual Reproduction: Features, Stages, Types, Examples
- Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)
- Shigella dysenteriae- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestation
- Short-Read Sequencing: Principle, Process, Examples, Uses
- Shotgun Sequencing: Principle, Types, Process, Uses, Diagram
- Signs and Symptoms of COVID-19 with Risk factors
- Silent Mutation- Definition, Causes, Mechanism, Applications, Examples
- Silver Staining- Principle, Procedure, Applications
- Simmons Citrate Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Simple Columnar Epithelium: Structure, Functions & Examples
- Simple cuboidal epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Simple Diffusion vs Facilitated Diffusion (11 Differences)
- Simple diffusion- Definition, principle, examples, applications
- Simple Microscope: Principle, Parts, Uses, Examples, Diagram
- Simple squamous epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Simple Staining- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Single Cell Protein (SCP): Microbes, Production, Uses
- Single-Cell Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Uses, Developments
- Sister Chromatids: Formation, Separation, Functions
- Skin Cells: Structure, Types, Functions, Diseases
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Structure, Functions
- Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)- Factors, Process/Steps, Examples
- Soil- Definition, Composition, Properties, Types and Uses
- Solanaceae Family (Night Shade or Potato Family)
- SOLiD Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Applications, Diagram
- Solid State Fermentation (SSF)
- Solubility Tests of Proteins- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Somatic Mutation vs. Germline Mutation: 13 Key Differences
- Somatic Mutation- Definition, Causes, Outcomes, Diseases
- Sorbitol MacConkey Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
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- Southern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- Soybean Cyst Nematode: Causes, Cycle & Control Strategies
- Speciation- Definition, causes, process, types, examples
- Species: Classification, Taxonomy, Example, Identification
- Spectrophotometer: Principle, Instrumentation, Applications
- Sperm Cell Unraveled: Anatomy, Functions & Key Diseases
- Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis: 18 Differences, Examples
- Spermatogenesis- Definition, Stages and Process with figure
- Spleen: Definition, Structure and Functions
- Spoilage of chocolate and confectionery and its preservation
- Spoilage of sugar and sugar products and their preservations
- Spore Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
- Sporothrix schenckii- An Overview
- Spot Indole Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Spread Plate Method- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Uses
- Standard Precautions (Infection Control) in Healthcare
- Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP)- Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins
- Staphylococcus aureus- An Overview
- Staphylococcus capitis- An Overview
- Staphylococcus epidermidis- An Overview
- Staphylococcus hominis- An Overview
- Staphylococcus lugdunensis- An Overview
- Staphylococcus saprophyticus- An Overview
- Staphylococcus vs Streptococcus- 20 Major Differences
- Starch Casein Agar (SCA)- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results
- Starch Digestion: Structure, Enzymes, Mechanism, Process
- Starch Hydrolysis Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Starch: Structure, Composition, Properties, Uses, Types
- Stem Cells- Definition, Properties, Types, Uses, Challenges
- Stem-loop (Hairpin loop): Properties, Types, Examples, Uses
- Sterilization Unveiled: Physical & Chemical Methods
- Stimulus- Definition, Types (External, Internal), Mechanism
- Storage Granules- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Stratified columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples
- Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium: Structure, Functions, Examples
- Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Structure, Functions, Examples
- Streak Plate Method: Principle, Types & Step-by-Step Guide
- Streptococcus agalactiae- An Overview
- Streptococcus anginosus- An Overview
- Streptococcus bovis- An Overview
- Streptococcus mitis- An Overview
- Streptococcus mutans- An Overview
- Streptococcus pyogenes- Group A Streptococcus (GAS)- An Overview
- Streptococcus Selective Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Strongyloides stercoralis (Parasitic Roundworm)- A Threadworm
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- Submerged Fermentation
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- Sudden Oak Death: Causes, Symptoms, Disease Cycle
- Sulfur Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
- Sulfur Reduction Test: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Sullivan and McCarthy’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Superclass Agnatha: Classification, Characteristics, Examples
- Synapomorphy- Definition, Importance, Examples
- Syntrophism or Syntrophy Interaction- Definition, Examples
- T Cell (T Lymphocyte)- Definition, Types, Development, Applications
- T-test: Definition, Formula, Types, Applications
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- Taenia solium- Classification, Habitat, Structure, Body wall
- Taenia solium- Life history, development and adaptations
- Taenia solium- Nutrition, respiration, excretory, nervous, reproductive system
- Taproot vs. Fibrous Root: 17 Key Differences, Examples
- Tardigrade: Habitat, Morphology, Physiology, Interesting facts
- Targeted Sequencing: Principle, Steps, Methods, Uses, Diagram
- TCBS Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Telomeres and Telomerase: Structure and Functions
- Telophase in Mitosis & Meiosis: Key Processes & Significance
- Test Cross (Single, Two, Triple Gene)- Definition, Examples, Uses
- Testing for Biological Molecules
- The Earth BioGenome Project (EBP)
- The Five Study Tips for Pharmacology to Ace Your Grades in Nursing School
- The Germ Theory of Disease
- The Human Digestive System: Organs, Functions, Diagram
- The Human Genome Project
- The Michaelis–Menten Model
- The Ontario Curriculum Grade 11 Biology Syllabus
- The Prenatal Developmental Period
- The Wobble Hypothesis: Definition, Statement, Significance
- Theories of Disease
- Theria: Characteristics, Diversity, Types, Examples
- Thick Blood Smear and Thin Blood Smear
- Thin Layer Chromatography: Principle, Parts, Steps, Uses
- Thioglycollate Broth- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Three-domain system (Carl Woese’s Classification)
- Thymus Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Thymus- Structure and Functions
- Thyroid Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
- Ti plasmid- Definition, Structure, Types, Applications
- Tollens’ Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV): Structure, Symptoms, Diseases
- Top and Best Biology Websites/Blogs of 2024 for Study Notes
- Topoisomerase: Types, Structure, Functions, Mechanism
- Torovirus- An Overview
- Toxigenic Algae And Algal Food Poisoning- An Overview
- Toxigenic Fungi And Fungal Mycotoxins In Food- An Overview
- Transcription vs Translation- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
- Transcriptomics: Definition, Types, Techniques, Applications
- Transfer RNA (tRNA)- Definition, Structure, Processing, Types, Functions
- Transitional Epithelium: Structure & Key Functions
- Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)- Definition, Principle, Images
- Transmission, pathogenesis, replication of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)
- Transpiration in Plants: Types, Mechanism, Factors, Uses
- Transport Media: Principle, Uses, Types, Examples
- Transposable elements- definition, types, examples, applications
- Trichophyton spp- An Overview
- Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Trisomy- Definition, Causes, Types, Diagnosis, Treatments
- Trophic Level: Food chain, Food web, Pyramid, Examples
- Tryptic Soy Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Tryptophan (Trp) Operon
- TSIA Test: Principle, Media, Procedure, Results, Uses
- Twins- Types, Causes and Significance
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- Type 1 Diabetes vs Type 2 Diabetes (14 major differences)
- Type I Error and Type II Error: 10 Differences, Examples
- Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples
- Type III (Immune Complex) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism, Examples
- Type IV (Cell Mediated) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples
- Types of antigen on the basis of source and immune response
- Types of Bias in Epidemiology
- Types of Candidiasis with Transmission and Pathogenesis
- Types of Cells with Functions and Examples
- Types of Leukocytes: Key Structures & Vital Functions
- Types of Muscle Tissue (Skeletal, Smooth, Cardiac Muscle)
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- Types of Plant Tissues: Meristematic and Permanent Tissue
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- Ultrafiltration- Process, Bowman’s Capsule, Glomerulus, Diagram
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- Understanding Secondary Consumers: Roles & Examples
- Urea Cycle: Functions, Steps, Products, Regulation, Disorders
- Urease Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Result, Uses
- Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)- An Overview
- Urogenital Microbiota- Normal Flora of Urinary and Vaginal Tract
- Uronic Acid Pathway: Enzymes, Steps, Applications
- USB Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Examples, Uses
- UV Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Steps, Parts, Uses
- UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Principle, Parts, Uses, Limitations
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- Vacuoles- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram
- Varicella Zoster Virus- An Overview
- Vascular vs. Non-vascular Plants: 17 Differences, Examples
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- Vectors for gene cloning- Plasmids and Bacteriophage
- Veins: Definition, Structure, Types, Functions, Diseases
- Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test
- Vermicomposting: Methods, Process, Mechanisms, Uses
- Verticillium Wilt: Causes, Symptoms, Disease Cycle, Control
- Vesicles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
- Vibrio cholerae Food Poisoning- Cholera toxin (CT)
- Vibrio parahaemolyticus Food Poisoning- Gastroenteritis
- Vibrio vulnificus: An Overview
- Vinegar Fermentation: Definition, Process, Production
- Viral Transport Media (VTM)- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations
- Virology VIVA Question and Answer with mnemonics
- Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Legionella pneumophila
- Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
- Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Virus Cultivation- Purposes and Methods
- Viruses- Structure, Replication and Diagnosis
- Visceral leishmaniasis (Kala-azar)- Causes, Lab diagnosis, Treatments
- VIVA Alert: Basic Microbiology with mnemonics
- Voges-Proskauer (VP) Test: Principle, Procedure & Results
- Voluntary vs. Involuntary Muscles: 16 Differences, Examples
- Vortex Mixer- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Examples, Uses
- Vorticella (Bell Animalcule)- An Overview
- VRBA- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- VRBL Agar (Violet Red Bile Lactose Agar)
- Water Bath- Definition, Principle, Parts, Types, Procedure, Uses
- Water Distiller- Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Examples
- Water Pollution: Sources, Pollutants, Types, Effects, Prevention
- Water Purification Methods and Steps: A Complete Guide
- Water Quality Analysis by Membrane Filter (MF) Technique
- Water Quality: Categories, Importance, Assessment
- Water Soluble Vitamins- B-Complex and C
- Watson and Crick DNA Model
- Week-by-Week Pregnancy: Baby Development & Body Changes
- West Nile Virus (WNV)- An Overview
- Western Blot: Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
- What are Bacteria?- A Complete Study Note and Guide
- What are FASTA and BLAST? An Introduction
- What are the types of Crystals found in Urine?
- What are the types of Mutations?
- What are Viruses?- A Complete Study Note and Guide
- What is Immunology?
- What is Inflammation? An Introduction
- What is Sensitivity, Specificity, False positive, False negative?
- Wheatley Trichrome Staining: Principle, Steps, Uses
- White Blood Cells (WBCs): Types, Functions and Immunity
- WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2018
- Whole Exome Sequencing (WES): Principle, Steps, Uses, Diagram
- Whole Genome Sequencing: Principle, Types, Process, Uses, Diagram
- Whole Transcriptome Sequencing (WTS) / Total RNA-Seq
- Why a Nursing Student Should Learn Microbiology?
- Why TCBS agar is not autoclaved?
- Widal Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
- Wuchereria bancrofti- Habitat, Morphology and Life Cycle
- X and V Factor Test: Principle, Procedure, Results
- X-Ray Spectroscopy- Definition, Principle, Steps, Parts, Uses
- Xanthoproteic Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
- XLD Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Xylem vs. Phloem: 18 Major Differences, Examples
- Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)
- Yeasts vs Molds- Definition and 23 Major Differences
- YEPD Agar- Composition, Principle, Preparation, Results, Uses
- Yersinia enterocolitica Food Poisoning (Yersiniosis)
- Yersinia Selective Agar: Composition, Principle, Results, Uses
- Yogurt: Definition, Process, Microbes, Types, Uses
- Z-Test: Formula, Examples, Uses, Z-Test vs T-Test
- Zebrafish Development- Different Stages and Process
- Ziehl-Neelsen Staining- Principle and Procedure with Results
- Zika Virus (ZIKV)- An Overview
- Zygote- Definition, Examples, Formation, Development, Challenges
