All Biology and Microbiology Notes (Categories wise / Alphabetical order)

Agricultural Microbiology Notes

Microbial degradation of cellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial degradation of chitin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial degradation of hemicellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial degradation of lignin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial degradation of pectin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial interaction and its types with examples

Microorganisms found in soil with effects and examples

Organic waste recycling (methods, steps, significance, barriers)

Phyllosphere microorganisms- Examples, Factors, Effects

Plant Tissue Culture

Rhizospheric microorganisms and effects, PGPR and Mycorrhiza

Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)- Factors, Process/Steps, Examples

Soil- Definition, Composition, Properties, Types and Uses

Bacteriology Notes

12 Differences between Pneumococcus and Viridans streptococci

20 Differences between Staphylococcus and Streptococcus

21 Difference between O antigen and H antigen (O vs H antigen)

25 Differences between Anthrax bacilli and Anthracoid bacilli

32 Differences between Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Acinetobacter baumannii- Lab Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention

Acinetobacter baumannii- Pathogenicity and Clinical Features

Aerobic and Facultatively Anaerobic Gram-Positive Cocci

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST)- Types and Limitations

Bacillus anthracis- An Overview

Bacillus cereus- An Overview

Biochemical Characteristics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Clinical manifestation and Pathogenesis of Streptococcus pyogenes

Clinical manifestation and Pathogenicity of Bacillus cereus

Clostridium perfringens- An Overview

Clostridium perfringens- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention

Clostridium perfringens- Pathogenesis, Clinical Features

Collection and transport of stool specimens

Cultural and Biochemical characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus

Cultural Characteristics of Bacillus cereus

Cultural characteristics of Clostridium perfringens

Cultural Characteristics of E. coli

Cultural Characteristics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Culture media used in Microbiology with their uses

E. coli Pathotypes- ETEC, EPEC, EHEC, EAEC, EIEC, DAEC

E. coli- Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control

E. coli- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestations

Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)

Enterobacteriaceae Cultural Characteristics

Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)

Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)

Epsilometer test (E test)

Escherichia coli (E. coli)- An Overview

Factors affecting bacterial pathogenicity

Flagella and Pili (Fimbriae)

Gram-negative bacteria- cell wall, examples, diseases, antibiotics

Gram-positive bacteria- cell wall, examples, diseases, antibiotics

Gram-positive cell wall

Habitat and Morphology of Acinetobacter baumannii

Habitat and Morphology of Chlamydia trachomatis

Habitat and Morphology of Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Habitat and Morphology of Gardnerella vaginalis

Habitat and Morphology of Klebsiella pneumoniae

Habitat and Morphology of Listeria monocytogenes

Habitat and Morphology of Mycobacterium leprae

Habitat and Morphology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Habitat and Morphology of Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Habitat and Morphology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Habitat and Morphology of Shigella dysenteriae

Habitat and Morphology of Staphylococcus aureus

Habitat and Morphology of Streptococcus pneumoniae

Habitat and Morphology of Streptococcus pyogenes

Habitat of Bacillus cereus

Habitat of Clostridium perfringens

Habitat of E. coli

Hemolysis of Streptococci- Types and Examples with Images

Klebsiella pneumoniae- Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention

Klebsiella pneumoniae- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestations

Laboratory diagnosis of Bacterial vaginosis caused by Gardnerella vaginalis

Laboratory diagnosis of Legionella pneumophila

Laboratory diagnosis of Leprosy caused by Mycobacterium leprae

Laboratory diagnosis of Listeriosis caused by Listeria monocytogenes

Laboratory diagnosis of Streptococcus pyogenes

Laboratory diagnosis of Syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum

Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Bacillus cereus

Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Borrelia burgdorferi

Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Coxiella burnetii

Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Francisella tularensis

Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Leptospira interrogans

Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Rickettsia rickettsii

Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Shigella dysenteriae

Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Streptococcus pneumoniae

Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Tuberculosis

Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control of Chlamydia trachomatis

Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Morphology of Bacillus cereus

Morphology of Bacteria

Morphology of Bacteria- Sizes, Shapes, Arrangements, Examples

Morphology of Clostridium perfringens

Morphology of E. coli

Mycobacterium tuberculosis- An Overview

Neisseria gonorrhoeae- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention

Normal Human Microbiota

Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestation of Gardenerella vaginalis

Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Borrelia burgdorferi

Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Chlamydia trachomatis

Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Coxiella burnetii

Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Francisella tularensis

Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Leptospira interrogans

Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Mycobacterium leprae

Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Rickettsia rickettsii

Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Treponema pallidum

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)

Shigella dysenteriae- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestation

Staphylococcus aureus- An Overview

Staphylococcus aureus- Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention

Staphylococcus capitis- An Overview

Staphylococcus epidermidis- An Overview

Staphylococcus hominis- An Overview

Staphylococcus lugdunensis- An Overview

Staphylococcus saprophyticus- An Overview

Streptococcus agalactiae- An Overview

Streptococcus anginosus- An Overview

Streptococcus bovis- An Overview

Streptococcus mitis- An Overview

Streptococcus mutans- An Overview

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

Virulence factors and Clinical manifestation of Staphylococcus aureus

Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Legionella pneumophila

Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes

Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Streptococcus pneumoniae

Water Quality Analysis by Most Probable Number (MPN)

Why MHA is used for antibiotic susceptibility testing?

Why TCBS agar is not autoclaved?

Basic Microbiology Notes

17 Differences between Meningitis and Encephalitis

19 Differences between cilia and flagella (cilia vs flagella)

21 Difference between diarrhea and dysentery (diarrhea vs dysentery)

21 Difference between O antigen and H antigen (O vs H antigen)

28 Differences Between Bacteria and Virus (Bacteria vs Virus)

30 Differences between DNA and RNA (DNA vs RNA)

31 Differences Between Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria

47 Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Archaea vs Bacteria- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Autoclave- definition, parts, principle, procedure, types, uses

Bacteria vs Fungi- Definition, 21 Major Differences, Examples

Bacterial and Fungal Preservation Methods

Bacterial Growth and Factors Affecting Growth of Bacteria

Bacterial growth curve and its significance

Bacterial Growth Curve Protocol

Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology and Determinative Bacteriology

Beta-Lactamase and Ambler classification

Biochemical Test of Bacteria

Biosafety Cabinets- Definition, Classes (I, II, III) and Types

Biosafety Levels (BSL-1, BSL-2, BSL-3 and BSL-4)

Chemical methods of sterilization- Gaseous and Liquid

Cilia and Flagella- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Cilia- Definition, Structure, Formation, Types, Functions, Examples

Classification of Bacteria

Classification of Bacteria on the basis of Nutrition

Classification of Fungi

Classification of Protozoa

Degradation and Deterioration

Direct Microscopic Counts

Experiments in support and against Spontaneous Generation

Fields of Microbiology

Five Kingdom System of Classification- Features and Limitations

Flagella- Definition, Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples

General Aseptic Techniques in Microbiology Laboratory

Haeckel’s Three kingdom System of Classification

History of Microbiology

Incubator- Definition, Parts, Working, Types, Uses, Precautions

Instruments used in Microbiology Lab with Principle and Uses

Isolation of Actinomycetes from Soil sample

Isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) from Soil sample

Koch’s postulates and its limitations

Laminar flow hood/cabinet- definition, parts, principle, types, uses

Louis Pasteur and his contributions

McFarland Standards- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations

Microbiology History

Morphology of Bacteria- Sizes, Shapes, Arrangements, Examples

Parts of a microscope with functions and labeled diagram

Physical methods of sterilization- Heat, Filtration, Radiation

Pour Plate Technique- Procedure, Advantages, Limitations

Principles of Diagnosis with Medical Microbiology

Prokaryotic cells- characteristics, structure, division, examples

Robert Koch and Koch’s Postulates

Scope and Applications of Microbiology

Sensitivity and Specificity

Serial dilution- definition, formula, calculator, procedure, uses

Spread Plate Technique- Principle, Procedure, Advantages

Streak Plate Method- Principle, Methods, Significance, Limitations

The Germ Theory of Disease

Top 10 Microbiology Journals with Impact Factor (updated 2019)

Types of Centrifuge and Centrifugation (definition, principle, uses)

Types of PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) – definition and uses

Water Quality Analysis by Membrane Filter (MF) Technique

Water Quality Analysis by Most Probable Number (MPN)

What is Sensitivity, Specificity, False positive, False negative?

Biochemical Test Notes

4-Methylumbelliferyl-β-D-Glucuronide (MUG) Test

Acetamide Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses

Acetate Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses

Bacitracin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses

Beta (β)-Lactamase Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results

Bile Esculin Test- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Bile Esculin Test- Principle, procedure, results, uses, limitations

Bile Solubility Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses

Biuret Test for Protein

Butyrate Disk Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses, Limitations

CAMP Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses, Limitations

Carbohydrate Fermentation Test | Sugar Fermentation Test

Casein Hydrolysis Test

Catalase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses

Cetrimide Agar Test- Principle, Procedures, Results, Uses

Citrate Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses

Coagulase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result, Uses

Decarboxylase Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses

Deoxyribonuclease (DNase) Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Esculin Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses

Gelatin Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result, Uses

Growth at 42°C Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Hippurate Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Production Test

Indole Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses

Kligler Iron Agar Test

L-Pyrrolidonyl Arylamidase (PYR) Test

Lecithinase Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results

Leucine Amino Peptidase (LAP) Test

Lipase Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedures, Results, Uses

Lipid Hydrolysis Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results

Litmus Milk Medium Test

Lysine Iron Agar Test

Malonate Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results

Methyl Red (MR) Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses

Microdase (Modified Oxidase) Test- Principle, Procedure and Results

Motility Test- Principle, Procedure and Results

MRS Broth Test- Principle, Procedure and Results

Nitrate Reduction Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results

Nitrite Reduction Test

Novobiocin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses

O-Nitrophenyl-β-D-Galactopyranoside (ONPG) Test

Optochin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure and Results

Oxidase Test- Principle, Procedure and Results

Oxidation-Fermentation (OF) Test

Phenylalanine Deaminase Test

Potassium hydroxide (KOH) test

Pyruvate Broth Test

Salt Tolerance Test

Spot Indole Test- Objective, Principle, Procedure, Results and Limitations

Starch Hydrolysis Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results

Sulfur Reduction Test

Triple Sugar Iron Agar (TSIA) Test

Urease Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Result, Uses

Voges Proskauer (VP) Test

X and V Factor Test for Haemophilus

Biochemical Test of Bacteria Notes

Biochemical Test of Acinetobacter baumannii

Biochemical Test of Actinomyces israelii

Biochemical Test of Actinomyces israelii

Biochemical Test of Aeromonas caviae

Biochemical Test of Aeromonas hydrophila

Biochemical Test of Alcaligenes faecalis subsp. faecalis

Biochemical Test of Bacillus anthracis

Biochemical Test of Bacillus cereus

Biochemical Test of Bacillus subtilis

Biochemical Test of Bacteria

Biochemical Test of Bacteroides fragilis

Biochemical Test of Bifidobacterium bifidum

Biochemical Test of Bordetella pertussis

Biochemical Test of Brucella melitensis

Biochemical Test of Burkholderia cepacia

Biochemical Test of Burkholderia pseudomallei

Biochemical Test of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus

Biochemical Test of Campylobacter jejuni

Biochemical Test of Chlamydia trachomatis

Biochemical test of Citrobacter freundii

Biochemical Test of Clostridium botulinum

Biochemical Test of Clostridium difficile

Biochemical Test of Clostridium perfringens

Biochemical Test of Clostridium tetani

Biochemical Test of Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Biochemical Test of Edwardsiella tarda

Biochemical Test of Enterobacter aerogenes

Biochemical Test of Enterobacter cloacae

Biochemical Test of Enterococcus faecalis

Biochemical Test of Enterococcus faecium

Biochemical Test of Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Biochemical Test of Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis

Biochemical Test of Fusobacterium necrophorum

Biochemical Test of Gardnerella vaginalis

Biochemical Test of Haemophilus aegyptius

Biochemical Test of Haemophilus influenzae

Biochemical Test of Haemophilus parainfluenzae

Biochemical Test of Hafnia alvei

Biochemical Test of Helicobacter pylori

Biochemical Test of Kingella kingae

Biochemical Test of Klebsiella granulomatis

Biochemical Test of Klebsiella oxytoca

Biochemical Test of Klebsiella pneumoniae

Biochemical Test of Lactobacillus spp.

Biochemical Test of Listeria monocytogenes

Biochemical Test of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Biochemical Test of Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Biochemical Test of Proteus mirabilis

Biochemical Test of Providencia stuartii

Biochemical Test of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Biochemical Test of Salmonella Typhi

Biochemical Test of Serratia marcescens

Biochemical Test of Shigella flexneri

Biochemical Test of Staphylococcus aureus

Biochemical Test of Staphylococcus epidermidis

Biochemical Test of Streptococcus agalactiae

Biochemical Test of Streptococcus canis

Biochemical Test of Streptococcus mutans

Biochemical Test of Streptococcus pneumoniae

Biochemical Test of Streptococcus pyogenes

Biochemical Test of Vibrio cholerae

Biochemical Test of Yersinia pestis

Biochemistry Notes

29 Difference between exotoxins and endotoxins

Acree-Rosenheim Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Active Transport- Types and Significance

Alpha Oxidation

Amino Acids- Properties, Structure, Classification and Functions

Anthrone Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Barfoed’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Benedict’s Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results

Beta-oxidation of Fatty Acid

Bial’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Biuret Test for Protein

Brain Lipid Extraction Protocol

Buffer and Extraction Buffer

Carbohydrate Fermentation Test | Sugar Fermentation Test

Carbohydrates – Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates- definition, structure, types, examples, functions

Cellular Respiration- Definition, Equations, Types, Steps, Products

Cholesterol structure and synthesis

De novo pyrimidine synthesis

Degradation and Deterioration

Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats

Ehrlich Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)- Components and Steps

Electron transport chain- definition, components, steps, FAQs

Enzyme Inhibition

Enzymes- Properties, Classification and Significance

Esbach Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Ethanol Metabolism

Fat soluble vitamins- Vitamin A, D, E and K

Fatty Acid Synthesis

Fehling’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Fructose Metabolism

Galactose Metabolism

Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Reactions and Significance

Glycolysis- definition, equation, enzymes, 10 Steps with diagram

Glycolysis- Steps, ATP generation and Significance

Heat coagulation test of proteins

Heller’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Heme Degradation

Henderson Hasselbalch Equation

Hopkin’s Cole Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Iodine Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Isatin Test- Definition, Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Ketones in urine (ketonuria) and Ketones in urine test

Krebs cycle / Citric acid cycle / TCA Cycle with steps and diagram

Lead Sulfide Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Lineweaver–Burk Plot

Lipids- definition, properties, structure, types, examples, functions

Membrane Carbohydrate

Membrane Lipids

Membrane Proteins

Microbial degradation of cellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial degradation of chitin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial degradation of hemicellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial degradation of lignin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Microbial degradation of pectin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)

Millon’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Molisch Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Mucic Acid Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Ninhydrin Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Nitrogen Cycle- Steps and Significance

Nitroprusside Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Nucleic Acids- Nucleosides and Nucleotides

Omega oxidation (ω-oxidation) of fatty acid

Osazone Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Passive Transport

Pauly’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Peptide bond- definition, formation, degradation, examples

Phosphoketolase (Heterolactic) Pathway

Primary vs Secondary Metabolites- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples

Protein Databases- Types and Importance

Protein Structure- Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary

Proteins- Properties, Structure, Classification and Functions

Purine Synthesis

Sakaguchi Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Salt Saturation Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids- Definition, 20 Differences, Examples

Seliwanoff’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Solubility Tests of Proteins- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Sullivan and McCarthy’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

TCA Cycle (Citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle)

The Michaelis–Menten model

The Wobble Hypothesis

Tollens’ Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Urea Cycle- Enzymes and Steps

Uronic Acid Pathway

Water Soluble Vitamins- B-Complex and C

Xanthoproteic Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

Bioinformatics Notes

10 differences between genomics and proteomics

Bioinformatics- Introduction and Applications

Biological Databases- Types and Importance

FASTA and BLAST

Gene Prediction- Importance and Methods

Homology Modeling- Working, Steps, and Uses

How to construct a Phylogenetic tree ?

In Silico drug designing and role of bioinformatics

Nucleotide sequences database

Protein Databases- Types and Importance

Secondary Databases

The Earth BioGenome Project (EBP)

The Human Genome Project

Biology Notes

21 Difference between diarrhea and dysentery (diarrhea vs dysentery)

24 Differences between Invertebrates and Vertebrates

27 Differences between Arteries and Veins (Arteries vs Veins)

29 Difference between exotoxins and endotoxins

32 Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis (Mitosis vs Meiosis)

33 Difference between enzymes and hormones (enzymes vs hormones)

3D Bioprinting- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications

47 Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Abiotic Factors- Definition, Types, Examples and Responses

Absorption vs Adsorption- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples

Actin vs Myosin- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples

Active Transport- Types and Significance

Active vs passive transport- Definition, 18 Major Differences, Examples

Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration- Definition, 11 Differences, Examples

Amensalism (Antagonism) Interaction- Definition, Types, Examples

Amphibians vs Reptiles- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Anabolism vs Catabolism- Definition, 13 Key Differences, Examples

Angiosperm vs Gymnosperm- Definition, 27 Major Differences, Examples

Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Autotroph vs Heterotroph- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples

Bacterial Transduction- Definition, Principle, Steps, Examples

Binary Fission- definition, steps, types, examples (vs mitosis)

Biotic Factors- Definition, Types, Examples and Factors Affecting

Biotic vs Abiotic Factors- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples

Buffy Coat- Definition, Preparation, Uses

Carbon Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts

Characteristics of Invertebrates with examples

Chlorophyll- Definition, Structure, Types, Biosynthesis, Uses

Chromosome vs Chromatid- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples

Chromosome- Structure, Types and Functions

Chromosomes- Abnormalities and Disorders

Cladogram- definition, features, parts, examples (vs Phylogram)

Classification of Phylum Protozoa

Cold-blooded vs Warm-blooded animals- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Commensalism Interaction- Definition, Types and Examples

Competition Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples

Connective Tissue- definition, structure, cells, types, functions, diseases

Developmental Biology

Diploid vs Haploid- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples

Epithelial Tissue – Definition, types, functions, examples

Epithelial tissue vs Connective tissue- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples

Eutrophication- Definition, Causes, Types, Process, Examples

Facilitated Diffusion- definition, principle, factors, examples

Feedback Mechanism- Definition, Types, Process, Examples, Applications

Five Kingdom System of Classification- Features and Limitations

Flora vs Fauna- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples

Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses

Genus Spirogyra – An Overview

Glandular epithelium- definition, structure, functions, examples

Habitat vs Niche- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples

Haeckel’s Three kingdom System of Classification

Homeostasis- Definition, Types, Examples, Applications

How these 26 things look like under the microscope (with diagrams)

Isolation of Mitochondria from Plants, Yeast Cells, Mice, Cell Culture

Lower and Higher Invertebrates with their differences

Meiosis- definition, purpose, stages, applications with diagram

Mendel’s Experiment and Laws

Mitosis- definition, purpose, stages, applications with diagram

Monocot vs Dicot Flower- Definition, Structure, 6 Differences, Examples

Monocot vs Dicot Leaves- Definition, Structure, 13 Differences, Examples

Monocot vs Dicot Roots- Definition, Structure, 18 Differences, Examples

Monocot vs Dicot Seed- Definition, Structure, 10 Differences, Examples

Monocot vs Dicot Stem- Definition, Structure, 22 Differences, Examples

Monocots vs Dicots- Definition, 26 Differences, Examples

Mutualism Interaction- Definition, Symbiosis, Types and Examples

Nitrification vs Denitrification- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples

Nitrogen Cycle- Steps and Significance

Osmosis- definition, types, examples, (Osmosis vs Diffusion)

Oviparous vs Viviparous- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples

Oxygen Release in Photosynthesis Protocol

Parasitism Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples

Phosphorus Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts

Photosynthesis- definition, equation, steps, process, diagram

Phylum Annelida- characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Arthropoda- Characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Aschelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)- Characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Ctenophora- characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Echinodermata- Characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Hemichordata- Characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Mollusca- characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Nematoda- characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Platyhelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples

Phylum Porifera- Characteristics, classification, examples

Phytoplankton vs Zooplankton- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Pinocytosis- definition, steps, types, examples, (vs phagocytosis)

Pollination vs Fertilization- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples

Predation Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples

Primary vs Secondary Succession- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples

Protocooperation Interaction- Definition and Examples

Protozoa- Definition, characteristics, classification, examples

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples

Simple columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples

Simple cuboidal epithelium- structure, functions, examples

Simple Diffusion vs Facilitated Diffusion (11 Differences)

Simple diffusion- definition, principle, examples, applications

Simple squamous epithelium- structure, functions, examples

Speciation- definition, causes, process, types, examples

Stratified columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples

Stratified cuboidal epithelium- structure, functions, examples

Stratified squamous epithelium- structure, functions, examples

Sulfur Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts

Syntrophism or Syntrophy Interaction- Definition, Examples

Taproot vs Fibrous root- Definition, 17 Major Differences, Examples

Tardigrade- Definition, Habitat, Morphology, Physiology, Interesting facts

Top and Best Biology Websites or Blogs for Study Notes

Transitional epithelium- definition, structure, functions, examples

Trophic level- Definition, food chain, food web, pyramid, examples

Types of Plant Cell – Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagrams

Vascular vs Non-vascular plants- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples

Xylem vs Phloem- Definition, 18 Major Differences, Examples

Biotechnology Notes

14 Types of Chromatography (Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses)

3D Bioprinting- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications

Bacteriophage- Definition, Structure, Life Cycles, Applications, Phage Therapy

Cell Fusion- Types and Significance

Centrifugal force- definition, formula, Principle, Examples (vs Centripetal force)

Embryo Transfer

Enzyme Technology

Micropropagation- Stages, Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations

Plant Tissue Culture

Solid State Fermentation (SSF)

Submerged Fermentation

Ultracentrifuge- Definition, Principle, Types, Parts, Procedure, Uses

Cancer Biology Notes

Breast- Definition, Structure, Functions and Breast Cancer

Mesothelioma Cancer

Oncogenic Viruses- An Overview

Cell Biology Notes

Anaphase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Anaphase I, II)

Animal Cell- Definition, Structure, Parts, Functions and Diagram

Apoptosis- definition, pathways, assay, examples (vs Necrosis)

Blood Cells- Definition and Types with Structure and Functions

Buffy Coat- Definition, Preparation, Uses

Cell (Plasma) Membrane- Structure, Composition, Functions

Cell Cycle- Definition, Phases, Regulation and Checkpoints

Cell Fusion- Types and Significance

Cell Organelles- Structure and Functions with labeled diagram

Cell proliferation- Definition, assay, differentiation, diseases

Cell Wall (Plant, Fungal, Bacterial)- Structure and Functions

Centrioles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Chloroplasts- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Cilia and Flagella- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Cilia- Definition, Structure, Formation, Types, Functions, Examples

Connective Tissue- definition, structure, cells, types, functions, diseases

Cytokinesis- Definition and Process (in animal and plant cells)

Cytoplasm- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Cytoskeleton- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Embryo Transfer

Endocytosis and Exocytosis (Endocytosis vs Exocytosis)

Endocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Epithelial Tissue – Definition, types, functions, examples

Epithelial tissue vs Connective tissue- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples

Eukaryotic Cells- Definition, Characteristics, Structure, Examples

Exocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples

Facilitated Diffusion- definition, principle, factors, examples

Flagella- Definition, Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples

Fluid Mosaic Model

Golgi Apparatus- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Interphase- definition, stages, cell cycle, diagram, video

Lysosomes- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Meiosis- definition, purpose, stages, applications with diagram

Membrane Carbohydrate

Membrane Lipids

Membrane Proteins

Metaphase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Metaphase 1 and 2)

Microfilaments- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Microtubules- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Microvilli- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Mitochondria- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Mitosis- definition, purpose, stages, applications with diagram

Neutrophils – Definition, structure, count, range, functions

Nucleosome Model of Chromosome

Nucleus- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Osmosis- definition, types, examples, (Osmosis vs Diffusion)

Passive Transport

Peroxisomes- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Pinocytosis- definition, steps, types, examples, (vs phagocytosis)

Plant cell vs Animal cell- Definition, 25 Differences with cell organelles

Plant cell- definition, labeled diagram, structure, parts, organelles

Plasmodesmata- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Plastids- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram

Prophase in mitosis and meiosis (Prophase 1 and 2)

Ribosomes- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Rough vs Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples

Sandwich (Davson–Danielli) model of cell membrane

Secretory Vesicles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Simple diffusion- definition, principle, examples, applications

Storage Granules- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Telophase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Telophase I, II)

Types of Plant Cell – Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagrams

Vacuoles- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram

Vesicles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

Developmental Biology Notes

Blastocyst- Stages, Significance

Cell Cycle- Definition, Phases, Regulation and Checkpoints

Comparative Embryology- Principle, Significance

Development of Caenorhabditis elegans

Developmental Biology

DNA Methylation

Drosophila Development- Stages, Significance

Epiblast- Development and Significance

Evolutionary Embryology

Gastrulation- Process, Consequences

Heart Embryology- Development of the Heart

Human Embryo Transfer

Human Embryogenesis

Implantation- Process, Events, Significance

Introduction to Embryology

Morula- Stage, Development, Significance

Oogenesis / Ovulation / Ovarian cycle- Definition, Phages, Process

Spermatogenesis- Definition, Stages and Process with figure

Stages of Childbirth

The Prenatal Developmental Period

Week by week pregnancy (Baby and body development with tips)

Zebrafish Development

Difference Between Notes

10 differences between genomics and proteomics

12 Differences between antigen and antibody (Antigen vs Antibody)

12 Differences between Pneumococcus and Viridans streptococci

12 Differences between Primary and Secondary Immune Response

16 Differences Between Antigenic Shift and Antigenic Drift

17 Differences between B Cells and T Cells (B Cells vs T Cells)

17 Differences between Meningitis and Encephalitis

17 Differences between Serum and Plasma (Serum vs Plasma)

19 Differences between Active Immunity and Passive Immunity

19 Differences between cilia and flagella (cilia vs flagella)

19 Differences between RBC and WBC (RBC vs WBC)

20 Differences between Humoral Immunity and Cell mediated Immunity

20 Differences between Staphylococcus and Streptococcus

21 Difference between diarrhea and dysentery (diarrhea vs dysentery)

21 Difference between O antigen and H antigen (O vs H antigen)

23 Differences between DNA Replication and Transcription

23 Differences between Yeasts and Molds (Yeasts vs Molds)

25 Differences between Anthrax bacilli and Anthracoid bacilli

27 Differences between Arteries and Veins (Arteries vs Veins)

28 Differences Between Bacteria and Virus (Bacteria vs Virus)

29 Difference between exotoxins and endotoxins

29 Differences between Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity

30 Differences between DNA and RNA (DNA vs RNA)

31 Differences Between Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria

32 Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis (Mitosis vs Meiosis)

32 Differences between Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae

33 Difference between enzymes and hormones (enzymes vs hormones)

36 Differences between light and electron microscope

40 Differences between Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum

47 Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

8 Differences between cytokines and chemokines

9 Differences between Solute and Solvent (Solute vs Solvent)

Absorption vs Adsorption- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples

Actin vs Myosin- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples

Active vs passive transport- Definition, 18 Major Differences, Examples

Acute disease vs Chronic disease- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples

Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration- Definition, 11 Differences, Examples

Agglutination vs Precipitation- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples

Amphibians vs Reptiles- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Angiosperm vs Gymnosperm- Definition, 27 Major Differences, Examples

Archaea vs Bacteria- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Autotroph vs Heterotroph- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples

Bacteria vs Fungi- Definition, 21 Major Differences, Examples

Biotic vs Abiotic Factors- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples

Bone vs Cartilage- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Breathing vs Respiration- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Cation vs Anion- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples

Celsius scale vs Fahrenheit scale- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples

Chromosome vs Chromatid- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples

Cold-blooded vs Warm-blooded animals- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Communicable vs non-communicable diseases- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples

Diploid vs Haploid- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples

Endonuclease vs Exonuclease- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples

Epithelial tissue vs Connective tissue- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples

Flora vs Fauna- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples

Habitat vs Niche- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples

Heterochromatin vs Euchromatin- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Homozygous vs Heterozygous- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples

Hypersensitivity Type I, II, III and IV in one table

Incomplete dominance vs Co-dominance- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples

Independent vs Dependent variables- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples

Inhalation vs Exhalation- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Introns vs Exons- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples

Isolation vs Quarantine- Definition, 8 Differences, Examples

MHC Class I vs MHC Class II- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Monocots vs Dicots- Definition, 26 Differences, Examples

Natural vs Artificial Selection- Definition, 17 Major Differences, Examples

Nitrification vs Denitrification- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples

Oviparous vs Viviparous- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples

Phenotype vs Genotype- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples

Phytoplankton vs Zooplankton- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Plant cell vs Animal cell- Definition, 25 Differences with cell organelles

Pollination vs Fertilization- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples

Primary vs Secondary Metabolites- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples

Primary vs Secondary Succession- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples

Quantitative vs Qualitative Data- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples

Rough vs Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples

Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids- Definition, 20 Differences, Examples

Spermatogenesis vs Oogenesis- Definition, 18 Differences, Examples

Taproot vs Fibrous root- Definition, 17 Major Differences, Examples

Transcription vs Translation- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples

Type I Error and Type II Error- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples

Vascular vs Non-vascular plants- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples

Voluntary vs Involuntary Muscles- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Xylem vs Phloem- Definition, 18 Major Differences, Examples

Diseases Notes

Acute disease vs Chronic disease- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples

Candidiasis and types of Candidiasis

Communicable vs non-communicable diseases- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples

Disease Prevention

Diseases and Disorders of the female reproductive system

Diseases and disorders of the male reproductive system

Disorders and Diseases of the Human Digestive System

Endemic Diseases

Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)

Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)

Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)

Hand washing steps and guidelines by WHO and CDC with video

Mode of Transmission of Diseases

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)

Signs and Symptoms of COVID-19 with Risk factors

The Germ Theory of Disease

Treatment options and Vaccines updates of COVID-19

Type 1 Diabetes vs Type 2 Diabetes (14 major differences)

WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2018

Environmental Microbiology Notes

Amensalism (Antagonism) Interaction- Definition, Types, Examples

Carbon Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts

Commensalism Interaction- Definition, Types and Examples

Competition Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples

Eutrophication- Definition, Causes, Types, Process, Examples

Microbial interaction and its types with examples

Microbiology of extreme environments (Types and Examples)

Mutualism Interaction- Definition, Symbiosis, Types and Examples

Parasitism Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples

Phosphorus Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts

Predation Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples

Protocooperation Interaction- Definition and Examples

Sulfur Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts

Trophic level- Definition, food chain, food web, pyramid, examples

Epidemiology Notes

Branches of Epidemiology

Case-Control Study

Cross-Sectional Study

Descriptive Studies- Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations

Disease Control

Disease Prevention

Endemic Diseases

Epidemic vs Pandemic with Definition and Examples

Epidemic- Causes, Types, and Response

Epidemiologic Triad- Agent, Host, Environment

Epidemiological Markers

Epidemiology- History, Objectives and Types

Error- Types, Sources and Control

Isolation vs Quarantine- Definition, 8 Differences, Examples

Mode of Transmission of Diseases

Outbreak Investigations- Objectives, Steps, Difficulties

Pandemic- definition, features, causes, effects, examples

Phases of Clinical Trials for Drugs and Vaccine Development

Predictive Value

Randomized Controlled Trial (RCTs)

Scope of Epidemiology

Sensitivity and Specificity

Source and Reservoir of Infection

Theories of Disease

Types of Bias in Epidemiology

Food Microbiology Notes

Factors affecting the growth of microorganisms in food

Food Spoilage- Types of microorganisms in foods with examples

Immune Booster Foods

Microbial spoilage of canned foods and its preservation (Canning)

Microbial Spoilage of Milk and Milk Products (Cream, Butter, Cheese, Yoghurt, Ice-cream)

Milk Pasteurization- Definition, Methods, Steps, Significance

Preservation of milk and milk products from microbial spoilage

Human Anatomy Notes

Bone vs Cartilage- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Breast- Definition, Structure, Functions and Breast Cancer

Diseases and Disorders of the female reproductive system

Diseases and disorders of the male reproductive system

Disorders and Diseases of the Human Digestive System

Human Female Reproductive System- Organs, Structure, Functions

Human Male Reproductive System- Organs, Structure, Functions

Integumentary System- definition, organs, functions, diseases

The Human Digestive System- Organs, Functions and Diagram

Voluntary vs Involuntary Muscles- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

Human Physiology Notes

Breathing vs Respiration- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats

Functions of The Human Digestive System

Implantation- Process, Events, Significance

Inhalation vs Exhalation- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Integumentary System- definition, organs, functions, diseases

Menstrual Cycle- definition, hormones, phases, diagram

Oogenesis / Ovulation / Ovarian cycle- Definition, Phages, Process

Physiology of Human Digestion

Spermatogenesis vs Oogenesis- Definition, 18 Differences, Examples

Spermatogenesis- Definition, Stages and Process with figure

Stages of Childbirth

Week by week pregnancy (Baby and body development with tips)

Immunology Notes

12 Differences between antigen and antibody (Antigen vs Antibody)

12 Differences between Primary and Secondary Immune Response

16 Differences Between Antigenic Shift and Antigenic Drift

17 Differences between B Cells and T Cells (B Cells vs T Cells)

17 Differences between Serum and Plasma (Serum vs Plasma)

19 Differences between Active Immunity and Passive Immunity

19 Differences between RBC and WBC (RBC vs WBC)

20 Differences between Humoral Immunity and Cell mediated Immunity

29 Differences between Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity

8 Differences between cytokines and chemokines

Active Immunization- Advantages and Drawbacks

Agglutination – definition, reactions and applications

Agglutination vs Precipitation- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples

Anatomical Barriers of Immune System- Skin and Mucus

Antibody- Definition, Structure, Properties, Types, Classes, Applications

Antibody- Introduction, Structure and Classes

Antigen- Definition, Properties, Structure, Types, Examples

Apoptosis- definition, pathways, assay, examples (vs Necrosis)

Autoimmune Disease

B cell (B lymphocyte)- Definition, Types, Development, Applications

Biology of the B Lymphocyte

Blood Cells- Definition and Types with Structure and Functions

Bone Marrow- Types, Structure and Functions

Cells of the immune system

Classical Pathway of Complement Activation

Competitive ELISA Protocol and Animation

Complement Activation- Classical, Alternative and Lectin Pathways

Complement Components

Complement Fixation Test- Steps, Advantages and Disadvantages

Complement- Properties and Nomenclature

Coomb’s Test- Direct and Indirect Coomb’s Test

Counter Current Immunoelectrophoresis

Cytokines- Mechanism of action and Functions

Endocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

Factors affecting Immunogenicity

Hypersensitivity Type I, II, III and IV in one table

Hypersensitivity- Introduction, Causes, Mechanism and Types

Immune Booster Foods

Immunoelectrophoresis- Principle, Procedure, Results and Applications, Advantages and Limitations

Immunofluorescence

Immunoglobulin A (IgA)- Structure, Subclasses and Functions

Immunoglobulin D (IgD)- Structure and Functions

Immunoglobulin E (IgE)- Structure and Functions

Immunoglobulin G (IgG)- Structure, Subclasses and Functions

Immunoglobulin M (IgM)- Structure and Functions

Indirect ELISA- Introduction, Steps, Advantages and Protocol

Innate Immune System- An Introduction

Introduction to Antigen

Introduction to Antigen-Antibody Reactions

Introduction to B Cells also called B-Lymphocytes

Latex Agglutination Test

Lymph Nodes- Structure and Functions

Lymphocytes- Types and Functions

Macrophages- Introductions and Functions

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)- Types and Importance

Major Histocompatibility Complex I- Structure, Mechanism and Functions

Major Histocompatibility Complex II- Structure, Mechanism and Functions

MHC Class I vs MHC Class II- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples

Monoclonal Antibodies- Types, Uses and Limitations

Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissues (MALT)

Neutralization Test- Introduction and Types

Neutrophils – Definition, structure, count, range, functions

Non-Specific Immune Response

Opsonization- Definition, Mechanism, Opsonins, Examples

Ouchterlony Double Immunodiffusion technique

Passive immunization with advantages and drawbacks

Phagocytosis- definition, mechanism, steps with example

Physiological barriers of immune system

Precipitation Reaction – definition and applications

Properties and Function of different classes of Antibodies

Radial Immunodiffusion- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results, Applications, Advantages and Limitations

Radioimmunoassay- Principle, Uses and Limitations

Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) Test

Rh Blood Group System

Ring Precipitation Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results and Examples

Rocket Immunoelectrophoresis- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results, Applications, Advantages and Limitations

Sandwich ELISA- Steps and Advantages

Southern Blot- Principle, Steps and Applications

Spleen- Structure and Functions

Stem Cells- Definition, Properties, Types, Uses, Challenges

Structure of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

T Cell (T Lymphocyte)- Definition, Types, Development, Applications

Thymus- Structure and Functions

Type 1 (Anaphylactic) Hypersensitivity Reaction

Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples

Type III (Immune Complex) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples

Type IV (Cell Mediated) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples

Types of Agglutination Reactions

Types of antigen on the basis of source and immune response

Types of Complement Fixation Test

Types of Precipitation Reactions

Vaccines- Introduction and Types with Examples

Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test

Western blotting- Introduction, Principle and Applications

What is Immunology?

Widal Test- Objective, Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Advantages and Limitations

Infection Notes

Biosafety Levels (BSL-1, BSL-2, BSL-3 and BSL-4)

E. coli Pathotypes- ETEC, EPEC, EHEC, EAEC, EIEC, DAEC

Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)

Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)

Hand washing steps and guidelines by WHO and CDC with video

Mode of Transmission of Diseases

Phases of Clinical Trials for Drugs and Vaccine Development

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)

Source and Reservoir of Infection

Types of Crystals in Urine

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

Instrumentation Notes

14 Types of Chromatography (Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses)

22 Types of Spectroscopy with Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses

Affinity Chromatography

Agarose Gel Electrophoresis

Autoclave- definition, parts, principle, procedure, types, uses

Beer-Lambert Law

Cell Disruption Methods

Centrifugation- Principle, Types and Applications

Chromatography- definition, principle, types, applications

Column Chromatography

Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications

Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses

Gamma-ray (γ-ray) Spectroscopy

Gas chromatography- definition, principle, working, uses

Gel Filtration Chromatography

Gel Permeation Chromatography

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

Immunoelectrophoresis- Principle, Procedure, Results and Applications, Advantages and Limitations

Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy

Instruments used in Microbiology Lab with Principle and Uses

Ion Exchange Chromatography

Laminar flow hood/cabinet- definition, parts, principle, types, uses

Mass Spectrometry (MS)- Principle, Working, Instrumentation, Steps, Applications

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

Paper Chromatography

Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)

Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)

Solid State Fermentation (SSF)

Spectrophotometer- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications

Thin Layer Chromatography

Types of Centrifuge and Centrifugation (definition, principle, uses)

Ultracentrifuge- Definition, Principle, Types, Parts, Procedure, Uses

UV Spectroscopy- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications

X-Ray Spectroscopy- Principle, Instrumentation and Applications

Laboratory Tests Notes

Coomb’s Test- Direct and Indirect Coomb’s Test

Ketones in urine (ketonuria) and Ketones in urine test

MCH Blood Test- Definition, Calculation, Results, High and Low MCH value

MPV Blood Test- Definition, Calculation, Results, High and Low MPV value

Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) Test

Sample collection and Diagnosis of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2)

Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test

Microbiology Pictures

Cultural Characteristics of E. coli

E. coli on m-Endo Agar

Enterococcus faecalis on CHROMagar Orientation Medium

Klebsiella pneumoniae on MacConkey Agar

Salmonella Typhimurium on XLD agar

Serratia marcescens on Chocolate Agar

Staphylococcus aureus on Columbia CNA Agar with 5% Sheep Blood

Staphylococcus aureus on combined Mannitol Salt Agar and Vogel and Johnson Agar

Vibrio cholerae (Owaga) on TCBS Agar

Microscopy Notes

36 Differences between light and electron microscope

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

Brightfield Microscope (Compound Light Microscope)

Compound microscope- definition, labeled diagram, parts, uses

Confocal Microscope

Darkfield Microscope- Definition, Principle and Uses

Digital Microscope

Dissecting microscope (Stereo or stereoscopic microscope)

Electron microscope- definition, principle, types, uses, images

Fluorescence Microscope from LEAM Solution Inc

Fluorescence Microscopy- definition, principle, parts, uses

How these 26 things look like under the microscope (with diagrams)

Inverted Microscope

Light Microscope- definition, principle, types, parts, magnification

Parts of a microscope with functions and labeled diagram

Phase contrast Microscopy- definition, principle, parts, uses

Pocket Microscope

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Simple Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Applications

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

Types of Microscopes

USB Microscope- definition, principle, parts, examples, uses

Molecular Biology Notes

23 Differences between DNA Replication and Transcription

7 Types of RNA with Structure and Functions

Agarose Gel Electrophoresis

Bacterial Conjugation- Definition, Principle, Process, Examples

Bacterial Transduction- Definition, Principle, Steps, Examples

Bacterial Transformation- definition, principle, steps, examples

Central Dogma- Replication, Transcription, Translation

Cloning Vectors

Different forms of DNA- A form, B form, Z form

DNA Fingerprinting- Principle, Methods, Applications

DNA Ladders (1 kb, 1 kb plus, 100 bp, 100 bp plus) and Uses

DNA Methylation

DNA Polymerase- definition, structure, types (vs RNA polymerase)

DNA Replication- definition, enzymes, steps, mechanism, diagram

DNA Sequencing- Maxam–Gilbert and Sanger Dideoxy Method

DNA Transcription (RNA Synthesis)- Article, Diagrams and Video

DNA- Structure, Properties, Types, Forms, Functions

Endonuclease vs Exonuclease- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples

Eukaryotic DNA Isolation Protocol

Eukaryotic DNA Replication- Features, Enzymes, Process, Significance

Eukaryotic Transcription

Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses

Gene Cloning- Requirements, Principle, Steps, Applications

Gene Expression

Gene Prediction- Importance and Methods

Introns vs Exons- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples

Lac operon- definition, structure, Inducers, diagram

Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)

Nucleosome Model of Chromosome

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)- Principle, Steps, Applications

Post Translational Modification

Prokaryotic DNA Replication- Enzymes, Steps and Significance

Prokaryotic Transcription- Enzymes, Steps, Significance

Prokaryotic Translation (Protein Synthesis)

Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)

Real Time PCR- Principle, Process, Markers, Advantages, Uses

Recombinant DNA Technology- Steps, Applications and Limitations

Regulation of protein synthesis in Prokaryotes

Regulation of Translation In Eukaryotes

Restriction Enzyme (Restriction Endonuclease)

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

RNA Isolation Protocol

RNA polymerase- Definition, Types and Functions

RNA Splicing- definition, process, mechanism, types, errors, uses

RNA- Properties, Structure, Types and Functions

The Earth BioGenome Project (EBP)

The Human Genome Project

The Wobble Hypothesis

Transcription vs Translation- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples

Translation (Protein Synthesis) in Eukaryotes

Translation (Protein Synthesis)- Definition, Enzymes and Steps

Transposable elements- definition, types, examples, applications

Tryptophan (Trp) Operon

Types of PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) – definition and uses

Watson and Crick DNA Model

What is Sensitivity, Specificity, False positive, False negative?

Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)

Mycology Notes

23 Differences between Yeasts and Molds (Yeasts vs Molds)

Alternaria alternata- An Overview

Aspergillus clavatus- An Overview

Aspergillus flavus- An Overview

Aspergillus fumigatus- An Overview

Aspergillus niger- An Overview

Blastomyces dermatitidis- An Overview

Calcofluor White Staining

Candida albicans- An Overview

Candida glabrata- An Overview

Candida parapsilosis- An Overview

Candida tropicalis- An Overview

Candidiasis and types of Candidiasis

Characteristics of Fungi

Chromoblastomycosis (Chromomycosis)- An Overview

Classification of Fungi

Coccidioidomycosis- An Overview

Cryptococcus neoformans- An Overview

Epidermophyton floccosum- An Overview

Fusarium spp- An Overview

Grocott-Gomori’s Methenamine Silver Staining

Lactophenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) Staining

Microsporum spp- An Overview

Penicillium chrysogenum- An Overview

Rhizopus spp- An Overview

Sporothrix schenckii- An Overview

Trichophyton spp- An Overview

Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)

News and Updates

Parasitology Notes

40 Differences between Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum

Classification of Protozoa

Giemsa Stain- Principle, Procedure, Results, Interpretation

Host-Parasite Interactions

Parasitism Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples

Thick Blood Smear and Thin Blood Smear

Wheatley Trichrome Staining

Pharmacology Notes

Beta (β)-Lactamase Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results

Beta-Lactamase and Ambler classification

Chloroquine- Definition, Properties, Uses, Mechanism of action, Side effects

Dexamethasone- Definition, properties, uses, interactions, side effects

Epsilometer test (E test)

Favipiravir- Definition, properties, uses, mechanism, side effects

Hydroxychloroquine- Definition, characteristics, uses, side effects, interactions

In Silico drug designing and role of bioinformatics

Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Remdesivir- Definition, Mechanism of Action, Uses, Synthesis

Product Reviews

Fluorescence Microscope from LEAM Solution Inc

Protocols

Bacterial Growth Curve Protocol

Brain Lipid Extraction Protocol

Eukaryotic DNA Isolation Protocol

Isolation of Actinomycetes from Soil sample

Isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) from Soil sample

Isolation of Mitochondria from Plants, Yeast Cells, Mice, Cell Culture

Oxygen Release in Photosynthesis Protocol

Protocol of chloroplast isolation

Protocol: Phenol-chloroform extraction of prokaryotic DNA

Rapid Method for Enumeration of E. coli Biotype I

RNA Isolation Protocol

Water Quality Analysis by Membrane Filter (MF) Technique

Reports and Guidelines

Hand washing steps and guidelines by WHO and CDC with video

Phases of Clinical Trials for Drugs and Vaccine Development

WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2018

Research Methodology Notes

ANOVA- definition, one-way, two-way, table, examples, uses

Chi-square test

Common mistakes in Proposal writing

Data and its types

Descriptive Studies- Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations

Independent vs Dependent variables- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Data

Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis with 9 differences

P-value- definition, formula, table, finding p-value, significance

Primary Data and Secondary Data

Quantitative vs Qualitative Data- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples

Questionnaire method of data collection

Questionnaire- Types, Format, Questions

Questionnaires and Schedules

T-test- definition, formula, types, applications, example

Type I Error and Type II Error- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples

Types of Bias in Epidemiology

Z-test- definition, formula, examples, uses, z-test vs t-test

Short Answer Questions

Why MHA is used for antibiotic susceptibility testing?

Why TCBS agar is not autoclaved?

Staining Notes

Acid Fast Stain (Kinyoun-Cold Method)- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Acid Fast Stain- Principle, Reagents, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Acridine Orange Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Albert Staining- Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Results, Interpretation

Auramine- Rhodamine Staining

Calcofluor White Staining

Capsule Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Collagen Hybridizing Peptide Staining

Endospore Staining- Types, principle, procedure and Interpretation

Flagella Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Giemsa Stain- Principle, Procedure, Results, Interpretation

Gram Stain- Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Steps, Results

Grocott-Gomori’s Methenamine Silver Staining

Hematoxylin and eosin stain (H and E stain or HE stain)

Iron-Hematoxylin Staining

Lactophenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) Staining

Masson’s Trichrome Staining

Negative staining of Viruses

Negative Staining- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Papanicolaou Staining (Pap stain) for Pap Smear / Pap Test

Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) Staining

Positive staining of Viruses

Romanowsky Stains- Principle, Types, Applications

Silver Staining- Principle, Procedure, Applications

Simple Staining- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Spore Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation

Sudan Black B Staining

Wheatley Trichrome Staining

Ziehl-Neelsen Staining- Principle and Procedure with Results

Syllabus

AP Biology Course Description / Syllabus 2019-20

Cambridge AS and A Level Biology 9700 Syllabus 2019-2021

Cambridge AS and A Level Biology 9700 Syllabus 2022-2024

CBSE Class 11 Biology Syllabus (2020-2021)

CBSE Class 12 Biology Syllabus (2020-2021)

Class 11 Biology (Botany + Zoology) Syllabus 2020 (Nepal)

Class 12 Biology (Botany + Zoology) Syllabus 2020 (Nepal)

International Baccalaureate (IB) Biology Syllabus (Core+Options)

NEB Class 11 Biology (Botany + Zoology) Syllabus

NEB Class 12 Biology (Botany + Zoology) Syllabus

T.U. B.Sc. 1st Year General Microbiology Syllabus (Nepal)

T.U. B.Sc. 1st Year Zoology (Non-Chordata and Protochordata) Syllabus

T.U. B.Sc. 2nd Year Microbiology (Biochem, Biotech) Syllabus

Top 10

Top 10 Microbiology Journals with Impact Factor (updated 2019)

Top 10 Microbiology Universities in Germany (Updated 2021)

Top 10 Microbiology Universities in the United States (2021)

Top 200 Microbiology Universities in the World (Updated 2021)

Top and Best Biology Websites or Blogs for Study Notes

Virology Notes

Bacteriophage- Definition, Structure, Life Cycles, Applications, Phage Therapy

Classification of virus

Coltivirus- An Overview

Coronavirus- An Overview

COVID-19 related free online courses with certificate

Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus- An Overview

Different Types of COVID-19 Tests with Advantages, Limitations

Ebola Virus- An Overview

Electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) images of SARS-CoV-2

Hanta Virus- An Overview

Hepatitis A Virus- An Overview

Hepatitis C virus- An Overview

Hepatitis E Virus- An Overview

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)- An Overview

How viruses cause disease?

Human Astrovirus- An Overview

Human Cytomegalovirus- An Overview

Influenza A Virus- An Overview

Japanese Encephalitis (JE) Virus- An Overview

Lassa Virus- An Overview

Measles Virus- An Overview

Measles Virus- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control

Mumps Virus- An Overview

Norwalk Virus (Norovirus)- An Overview

Oncogenic Viruses- An Overview

Polio Virus- An Overview

Positive staining of Viruses

Prevention and Control of COVID-19

Rabies Virus- An Overview

Rotavirus- An Overview

Sample collection and Diagnosis of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2)

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV)

Signs and Symptoms of COVID-19 with Risk factors

Structure and Genome of Hepatitis E Virus

Structure and Genome of Human Cytomegalo Virus

Structure and Genome of Measles Virus

Structure and Genome of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) with diagram

Torovirus- An Overview

Transmission, pathogenesis, replication of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)

Treatment options and Vaccines updates of COVID-19

Varicella Zoster Virus- An Overview

Viral Transport Media (VTM)- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations

Virus Cultivation- Purposes and Methods

Viruses- Structure, Replication and Diagnosis