All Biology and Microbiology Notes (Categories wise / Alphabetical order)

Agricultural Microbiology Notes

Agrobacterium-Mediated Gene Transfer (Transformation) in Plants
Microbial degradation of cellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial degradation of chitin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial degradation of hemicellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial degradation of lignin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial degradation of pectin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial interaction and its types with examples
Microorganisms found in soil with effects and examples
Organic waste recycling (methods, steps, significance, barriers)
Phyllosphere microorganisms- Examples, Factors, Effects
Plant Tissue Culture
Rhizospheric microorganisms and effects, PGPR and Mycorrhiza
Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)- Factors, Process/Steps, Examples
Soil- Definition, Composition, Properties, Types and Uses

 

Bacteriology Notes

12 Differences between Pneumococcus and Viridans streptococci
20 Differences between Staphylococcus and Streptococcus
21 Difference between O antigen and H antigen (O vs H antigen)
25 Differences between Anthrax bacilli and Anthracoid bacilli
32 Differences between Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Acinetobacter baumannii- Lab Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention
Acinetobacter baumannii- Pathogenicity and Clinical Features
Aerobic and Facultatively Anaerobic Gram-Positive Cocci
Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST)- Types and Limitations
Bacillus anthracis- An Overview
Bacillus cereus- An Overview
Bordetella pertussis- An Overview
Clinical manifestation and Pathogenesis of Streptococcus pyogenes
Clostridium perfringens- An Overview
Collection and transport of stool specimens
Culture media used in Microbiology with their uses
E. coli Pathotypes- ETEC, EPEC, EHEC, EAEC, EIEC, DAEC
Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)
Enterobacteriaceae Cultural Characteristics
Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)
Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)
Epsilometer test (E test)- Principle, Procedure, Results, Advantages
Escherichia coli (E. coli)- An Overview
Factors affecting bacterial pathogenicity
Flagella and Pili (Fimbriae)
Gram-negative bacteria- cell wall, examples, diseases, antibiotics
Gram-positive bacteria- cell wall, examples, diseases, antibiotics
Gram-positive cell wall
Habitat and Morphology of Acinetobacter baumannii
Habitat and Morphology of Chlamydia trachomatis
Habitat and Morphology of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Habitat and Morphology of Gardnerella vaginalis
Habitat and Morphology of Klebsiella pneumoniae
Habitat and Morphology of Listeria monocytogenes
Habitat and Morphology of Mycobacterium leprae
Habitat and Morphology of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Habitat and Morphology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Habitat and Morphology of Shigella dysenteriae
Habitat and Morphology of Streptococcus pneumoniae
Habitat and Morphology of Streptococcus pyogenes
Hemolysis of Streptococci- Types and Examples with Images
Klebsiella pneumoniae- Lab Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention
Klebsiella pneumoniae- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestations
Laboratory diagnosis of Bacterial vaginosis caused by Gardnerella vaginalis
Laboratory diagnosis of Legionella pneumophila
Laboratory diagnosis of Leprosy caused by Mycobacterium leprae
Laboratory diagnosis of Listeriosis caused by Listeria monocytogenes
Laboratory diagnosis of Streptococcus pyogenes
Laboratory diagnosis of Syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum
Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Borrelia burgdorferi
Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Coxiella burnetii
Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Francisella tularensis
Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Leptospira interrogans
Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Rickettsia rickettsii
Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Shigella dysenteriae
Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Streptococcus pneumoniae
Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control of Chlamydia trachomatis
Lactobacillus acidophilus- An Overview
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Morphology of Bacteria- Sizes, Shapes, Arrangements, Examples
Mycobacterium tuberculosis- An Overview
Neisseria gonorrhoeae- Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention
Normal Human Microbiota
Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestation of Gardenerella vaginalis
Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Borrelia burgdorferi
Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Chlamydia trachomatis
Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Coxiella burnetii
Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Francisella tularensis
Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Leptospira interrogans
Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Mycobacterium leprae
Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Rickettsia rickettsii
Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Treponema pallidum
Pseudomonas aeruginosa- An Overview
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)
Shigella dysenteriae- Pathogenicity and Clinical Manifestation
Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP) | Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins
Staphylococcus aureus- An Overview
Staphylococcus capitis- An Overview
Staphylococcus epidermidis- An Overview
Staphylococcus hominis- An Overview
Staphylococcus lugdunensis- An Overview
Staphylococcus saprophyticus- An Overview
Streptococcus agalactiae- An Overview
Streptococcus anginosus- An Overview
Streptococcus bovis- An Overview
Streptococcus mitis- An Overview
Streptococcus mutans- An Overview
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Legionella pneumophila
Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Streptococcus pneumoniae
Water Quality Analysis by Most Probable Number (MPN)
Why MHA is used for antibiotic susceptibility testing?

 

Basic Microbiology Notes

17 Differences between Meningitis and Encephalitis
19 Differences between cilia and flagella (cilia vs flagella)
21 Difference between diarrhea and dysentery (diarrhea vs dysentery)
21 Difference between O antigen and H antigen (O vs H antigen)
28 Differences Between Bacteria and Virus (Bacteria vs Virus)
30 Differences between DNA and RNA (DNA vs RNA)
31 Differences Between Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria
47 Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Archaea vs Bacteria- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Autoclave- definition, parts, principle, procedure, types, uses
Bacteria vs Fungi- Definition, 21 Major Differences, Examples
Bacterial and Fungal Preservation Methods
Bacterial Growth and Factors Affecting Growth of Bacteria
Bacterial growth curve and its significance
Bacterial Growth Curve Protocol
Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology and Determinative Bacteriology
Beta-Lactamase and Ambler classification
Biochemical Test of Bacteria
Biosafety Cabinets- Definition, Classes (I, II, III) and Types
Biosafety Levels (BSL-1, BSL-2, BSL-3 and BSL-4)
Chemical methods of sterilization- Gaseous and Liquid
Cilia and Flagella- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Cilia- Definition, Structure, Formation, Types, Functions, Examples
Classification of Bacteria
Classification of Bacteria on the basis of Nutrition
Classification of Fungi
Classification of Protozoa
Degradation and Deterioration
Direct Microscopic Counts
Experiments in support and against Spontaneous Generation
Fields of Microbiology
Five Kingdom System of Classification- Features and Limitations
Flagella- Definition, Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples
General Aseptic Techniques in Microbiology Laboratory
Haeckel’s Three kingdom System of Classification
History of Microbiology
Incubator- Definition, Parts, Working, Types, Uses, Precautions
Instruments used in Microbiology Lab with Principle and Uses
Isolation of Actinomycetes from Soil sample
Isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) from Soil sample
Koch’s postulates and its limitations
Laminar flow hood/cabinet- definition, parts, principle, types, uses
Louis Pasteur and his contributions
McFarland Standards- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations
Microbiology History
Morphology of Bacteria- Sizes, Shapes, Arrangements, Examples
Parts of a microscope with functions and labeled diagram
Peptone Water
Physical methods of sterilization- Heat, Filtration, Radiation
Pour Plate Technique- Procedure, Advantages, Limitations
Principles of Diagnosis with Medical Microbiology
Prokaryotic cells- characteristics, structure, division, examples
Robert Koch and Koch’s Postulates
Scope and Applications of Microbiology
Sensitivity and Specificity
Serial dilution- definition, formula, calculator, procedure, uses
Spread Plate Technique- Principle, Procedure, Advantages
Streak Plate Method- Principle, Methods, Significance, Limitations
The Germ Theory of Disease
Top 10 Microbiology Journals with Impact Factor (updated 2019)
Types of Centrifuge and Centrifugation (definition, principle, uses)
Types of PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) – definition and uses
Water Quality Analysis by Membrane Filter (MF) Technique
Water Quality Analysis by Most Probable Number (MPN)
What is Sensitivity, Specificity, False positive, False negative?
Why TCBS agar is not autoclaved?

 

Biochemical Test Notes

4-Methylumbelliferyl-β-D-Glucuronide (MUG) Test
Acetamide Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
Acetate Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
Bacitracin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
Beta (β) Lactamase Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results
Bile Esculin Test- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Bile Esculin Test- Principle, procedure, results, uses, limitations
Bile Solubility Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
Biuret Test for Protein
Butyrate Disk Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses, Limitations
CAMP Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses, Limitations
Carbohydrate Fermentation Test | Sugar Fermentation Test
Casein Hydrolysis Test
Catalase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
Cetrimide Agar Test- Principle, Procedures, Results, Uses
Citrate Utilization Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
Coagulase Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result, Uses
Decarboxylase Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
Deoxyribonuclease (DNase) Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Esculin Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
Gelatin Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Types, Result, Uses
Growth at 42°C Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Hippurate Hydrolysis Test- Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Production Test
Indole Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Types, Results, Uses
Kligler Iron Agar Test
L-Pyrrolidonyl Arylamidase (PYR) Test
Lecithinase Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results
Leucine Amino Peptidase (LAP) Test
Lipase Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedures, Results, Uses
Lipid Hydrolysis Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results
Litmus Milk Medium Test
Lysine Iron Agar Test
Malonate Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results
Methyl Red (MR) Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
Microdase (Modified Oxidase) Test- Principle, Procedure and Results
Motility Test- Principle, Procedure and Results
MRS Broth Test- Principle, Procedure and Results
Nitrate Reduction Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results
Nitrite Reduction Test
Novobiocin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses
O-Nitrophenyl-β-D-Galactopyranoside (ONPG) Test
Optochin Susceptibility Test- Principle, Procedure and Results
Oxidase Test- Principle, Procedure and Results
Oxidation-Fermentation (OF) Test
Phenylalanine Deaminase Test
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) test
Pyruvate Broth Test
Salt Tolerance Test
Spot Indole Test- Objective, Principle, Procedure, Results and Limitations
Starch Hydrolysis Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure and Results
Sulfur Reduction Test
Triple Sugar Iron Agar (TSIA) Test
Urease Test- Principle, Media, Procedure, Result, Uses
Voges Proskauer (VP) Test
X and V Factor Test for Haemophilus

 

Biochemical Test of Bacteria Notes

Biochemical Test of Acinetobacter baumannii
Biochemical Test of Actinomyces israelii
Biochemical Test of Actinomyces israelii
Biochemical Test of Aeromonas caviae
Biochemical Test of Aeromonas hydrophila
Biochemical Test of Alcaligenes faecalis subsp. faecalis
Biochemical Test of Bacillus anthracis
Biochemical Test of Bacillus cereus
Biochemical Test of Bacillus subtilis
Biochemical Test of Bacteria
Biochemical Test of Bacteroides fragilis
Biochemical Test of Bifidobacterium bifidum
Biochemical Test of Bordetella pertussis
Biochemical Test of Brucella melitensis
Biochemical Test of Burkholderia cepacia
Biochemical Test of Burkholderia pseudomallei
Biochemical Test of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus
Biochemical Test of Campylobacter jejuni
Biochemical Test of Chlamydia trachomatis
Biochemical test of Citrobacter freundii
Biochemical Test of Clostridium botulinum
Biochemical Test of Clostridium difficile
Biochemical Test of Clostridium perfringens
Biochemical Test of Clostridium tetani
Biochemical Test of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Biochemical Test of Edwardsiella tarda
Biochemical Test of Enterobacter aerogenes
Biochemical Test of Enterobacter cloacae
Biochemical Test of Enterococcus faecalis
Biochemical Test of Enterococcus faecium
Biochemical Test of Escherichia coli (E. coli)
Biochemical Test of Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis
Biochemical Test of Fusobacterium necrophorum
Biochemical Test of Gardnerella vaginalis
Biochemical Test of Haemophilus aegyptius
Biochemical Test of Haemophilus influenzae
Biochemical Test of Haemophilus parainfluenzae
Biochemical Test of Hafnia alvei
Biochemical Test of Helicobacter pylori
Biochemical Test of Kingella kingae
Biochemical Test of Klebsiella granulomatis
Biochemical Test of Klebsiella oxytoca
Biochemical Test of Klebsiella pneumoniae
Biochemical Test of Lactobacillus spp.
Biochemical Test of Listeria monocytogenes
Biochemical Test of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Biochemical Test of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Biochemical Test of Proteus mirabilis
Biochemical Test of Providencia stuartii
Biochemical Test of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Biochemical Test of Salmonella Typhi
Biochemical Test of Serratia marcescens
Biochemical Test of Shigella flexneri
Biochemical Test of Staphylococcus aureus
Biochemical Test of Staphylococcus epidermidis
Biochemical Test of Streptococcus agalactiae
Biochemical Test of Streptococcus canis
Biochemical Test of Streptococcus mutans
Biochemical Test of Streptococcus pneumoniae
Biochemical Test of Streptococcus pyogenes
Biochemical Test of Vibrio cholerae
Biochemical Test of Yersinia pestis

 

Biochemistry Notes

29 Difference between exotoxins and endotoxins
Acree-Rosenheim Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Active Transport- Types and Significance
Alpha Oxidation
Amino Acids- Properties, Structure, Classification and Functions
Anthrone Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Barfoed’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Benedict’s Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results
Beta-oxidation of Fatty Acid
Bial’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Biuret Test for Protein
Brain Lipid Extraction Protocol
Buffer and Extraction Buffer
Carbohydrate Fermentation Test | Sugar Fermentation Test
Carbohydrates – Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates- definition, structure, types, examples, functions
Cellular Respiration- Definition, Equations, Types, Steps, Products
Cholesterol structure and synthesis
De novo pyrimidine synthesis
Degradation and Deterioration
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats
Eastern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
Ehrlich Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)- Components and Steps
Electron transport chain- definition, components, steps, FAQs
Enzyme Inhibition
Enzymes- Properties, Classification and Significance
Esbach Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Ethanol Metabolism
Fat soluble vitamins- Vitamin A, D, E and K
Fatty Acid Synthesis
Fehling’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Fructose Metabolism
Galactose Metabolism
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Reactions and Significance
Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Glycolysis- definition, equation, enzymes, 10 Steps with diagram
Glycolysis- Steps, ATP generation and Significance
Heat coagulation test of proteins
Heller’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Heme Degradation
Heme Synthesis
Henderson Hasselbalch Equation
Hopkin’s Cole Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Iodine Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Isatin Test- Definition, Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Ketones in urine (ketonuria) and Ketones in urine test
Krebs cycle / Citric acid cycle / TCA Cycle with steps and diagram
Lead Sulfide Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Lineweaver–Burk Plot
Lipids- definition, properties, structure, types, examples, functions
Membrane Carbohydrate
Membrane Lipids
Membrane Proteins
Microbial degradation of cellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial degradation of chitin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial degradation of hemicellulose (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial degradation of lignin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Microbial degradation of pectin (Enzymes, Steps, Mechanisms)
Millon’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Molisch Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Mucic Acid Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Ninhydrin Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Nitrogen Cycle- Steps and Significance
Nitroprusside Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Nucleic Acids- Nucleosides and Nucleotides
Omega oxidation (ω-oxidation) of fatty acid
Osazone Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Passive Transport
Pauly’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Peptide bond- definition, formation, degradation, examples
Phosphoketolase (Heterolactic) Pathway
Primary vs Secondary Metabolites- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples
Protein Databases- Types and Importance
Protein Structure- Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary
Proteins- Properties, Structure, Classification and Functions
Purine Synthesis
Sakaguchi Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Salt Saturation Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids- Definition, 20 Differences, Examples
Seliwanoff’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Solubility Tests of Proteins- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Sullivan and McCarthy’s Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
TCA Cycle (Citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle)
The Michaelis–Menten model
The Wobble Hypothesis
Tollens’ Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses
Urea Cycle- Enzymes and Steps
Uronic Acid Pathway
Water Soluble Vitamins- B-Complex and C
Xanthoproteic Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses

 

Bioinformatics Notes

10 differences between genomics and proteomics
Bioinformatics- Introduction and Applications
Biological Databases- Types and Importance
FASTA and BLAST
Gene Prediction- Importance and Methods
Genomics
Homology Modeling- Working, Steps, and Uses
How to construct a Phylogenetic tree ?
In Silico drug designing and role of bioinformatics
Nucleotide sequences database
Protein Databases- Types and Importance
Secondary Databases
The Earth BioGenome Project (EBP)
The Human Genome Project

 

Biology Notes

21 Difference between diarrhea and dysentery (diarrhea vs dysentery)
24 Differences between Invertebrates and Vertebrates
27 Differences between Arteries and Veins (Arteries vs Veins)
29 Difference between exotoxins and endotoxins
32 Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis (Mitosis vs Meiosis)
33 Difference between enzymes and hormones (enzymes vs hormones)
3D Bioprinting- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications
47 Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Abiotic Factors- Definition, Types, Examples and Responses
Absorption vs Adsorption- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples
Actin vs Myosin- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
Active Transport- Types and Significance
Active vs passive transport- Definition, 18 Major Differences, Examples
Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration- Definition, 11 Differences, Examples
Amensalism (Antagonism) Interaction- Definition, Types, Examples
Amphibians vs Reptiles- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Anabolism vs Catabolism- Definition, 13 Key Differences, Examples
Angiosperm vs Gymnosperm- Definition, 27 Major Differences, Examples
Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples
Autotroph vs Heterotroph- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
Autotrophs- Definition, Types and 4 Examples
Bacterial Transduction- Definition, Principle, Steps, Examples
Binary Fission- definition, steps, types, examples (vs mitosis)
Biotic Factors- Definition, Types, Examples and Factors Affecting
Biotic vs Abiotic Factors- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples
Buffy Coat- Definition, Preparation, Uses
Carbon Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
Characteristics of Invertebrates with examples
Chlorophyll- Definition, Structure, Types, Biosynthesis, Uses
Chromosome vs Chromatid- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples
Chromosome- Structure, Types and Functions
Chromosomes- Abnormalities and Disorders
Cladogram- definition, features, parts, examples (vs Phylogram)
Cold-blooded vs Warm-blooded animals- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples
Commensalism Interaction- Definition, Types and Examples
Competition Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
Connective Tissue- definition, structure, cells, types, functions, diseases
Developmental Biology
Dihybrid Cross- Definition, Steps and Process with Examples
Diploid vs Haploid- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
Epithelial Tissue – Definition, types, functions, examples
Epithelial tissue vs Connective tissue- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
Eutrophication- Definition, Causes, Types, Process, Examples
Facilitated Diffusion- definition, principle, factors, examples
Feedback Mechanism- Definition, Types, Process, Examples, Applications
Five Kingdom System of Classification- Features and Limitations
Flora vs Fauna- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses
Genus Spirogyra – An Overview
Glandular epithelium- definition, structure, functions, examples
Habitat vs Niche- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
Haeckel’s Three kingdom System of Classification
Heterotrophs- Definition and Types with 4 Examples
Homeostasis- Definition, Types, Examples, Applications
How these 26 things look like under the microscope (with diagrams)
Isolation of Mitochondria from Plants, Yeast Cells, Mice, Cell Culture
Lower and Higher Invertebrates with their differences
Meiosis- definition, purpose, stages, applications with diagram
Mendel’s 3 Laws (Segregation, Independent Assortment, Dominance)
Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment- Definition, Examples, Limitations
Mendel’s Law of Segregation- Definition, Examples, Limitations
Mendel’s Law of Dominance- Definition, Examples, Limitations
Mitosis- definition, purpose, stages, applications with diagram
Monocot vs Dicot Flower- Definition, Structure, 6 Differences, Examples
Monocot vs Dicot Leaves- Definition, Structure, 13 Differences, Examples
Monocot vs Dicot Roots- Definition, Structure, 18 Differences, Examples
Monocot vs Dicot Seed- Definition, Structure, 10 Differences, Examples
Monocot vs Dicot Stem- Definition, Structure, 22 Differences, Examples
Monocots vs Dicots- Definition, 26 Differences, Examples
Monohybrid Cross- Definition, Steps, Examples (vs Dihybrid Cross)
Mutualism Interaction- Definition, Symbiosis, Types and Examples
Nitrification vs Denitrification- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
Nitrogen Cycle- Steps and Significance
Osmosis- definition, types, examples, (Osmosis vs Diffusion)
Oviparous vs Viviparous- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples
Oxygen Release in Photosynthesis Protocol
Parasitism Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
Phosphorus Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
Photosynthesis- definition, equation, steps, process, diagram
Phylum Annelida- characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Arthropoda- Characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Aschelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)- Characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Ctenophora- characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Echinodermata- Characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Hemichordata- Characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Mollusca- characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Nematoda- characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Platyhelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples
Phylum Porifera- Characteristics, classification, examples
Phytoplankton vs Zooplankton- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples
Pinocytosis- definition, steps, types, examples, (vs phagocytosis)
Pollination vs Fertilization- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
Predation Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
Primary vs Secondary Succession- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples
Protocooperation Interaction- Definition and Examples
Protozoa- Definition, characteristics, classification, examples
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples
Punnett Square- Definition, Types, Application, Examples, Limitations
Simple columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples
Simple cuboidal epithelium- structure, functions, examples
Simple Diffusion vs Facilitated Diffusion (11 Differences)
Simple diffusion- definition, principle, examples, applications
Simple squamous epithelium- structure, functions, examples
Speciation- definition, causes, process, types, examples
Stratified columnar epithelium- structure, functions, examples
Stratified cuboidal epithelium- structure, functions, examples
Stratified squamous epithelium- structure, functions, examples
Sulfur Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
Syntrophism or Syntrophy Interaction- Definition, Examples
Taproot vs Fibrous root- Definition, 17 Major Differences, Examples
Tardigrade- Definition, Habitat, Morphology, Physiology, Interesting facts
Top and Best Biology Websites or Blogs of 2021 for Study Notes
Transitional epithelium- definition, structure, functions, examples
Trophic level- Definition, food chain, food web, pyramid, examples
Types of Plant Cell – Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagrams
Vascular vs Non-vascular plants- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples
Xylem vs Phloem- Definition, 18 Major Differences, Examples

 

Biotechnology Notes

14 Types of Chromatography (Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses)
3D Bioprinting- Definition, Principle, Process, Types, Applications
Animal Cell Culture- Definition, Types, Cell Lines, Procedure, Applications
Bacteriophage- Definition, Structure, Life Cycles, Applications, Phage Therapy
Batch Culture- Definition, Principle, Process, Applications, Limitations
Bioreactor- Definition, Design, Principle, Parts, Types, Applications, Limitations
Bioremediation
Cell Fusion- Types and Significance
Centrifugal force- definition, formula, Principle, Examples (vs Centripetal force)
Embryo Transfer
Enzyme Technology
Fermentation- Principle, Types, Applications, Limitations
Microbial Production of Penicillin- Definition, Biosynthesis, Process, Uses
Micropropagation- Stages, Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations
Plant Tissue Culture
Solid State Fermentation (SSF)
Submerged Fermentation
Ultracentrifuge- Definition, Principle, Types, Parts, Procedure, Uses

 

Cancer Biology Notes

Breast- Definition, Structure, Functions and Breast Cancer
Mesothelioma Cancer
Oncogenic Viruses- An Overview

 

Cell Biology Notes

Anaphase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Anaphase I, II)
Animal Cell Culture- Definition, Types, Cell Lines, Procedure, Applications
Animal Cell- Definition, Structure, Parts, Functions and Diagram
Apoptosis- definition, pathways, assay, examples (vs Necrosis)
Basophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
Blood Cells- Definition and Types with Structure and Functions
Buffy Coat- Definition, Preparation, Uses
Cell (Plasma) Membrane- Structure, Composition, Functions
Cell Cycle- Definition, Phases, Regulation and Checkpoints
Cell Fusion- Types and Significance
Cell Organelles- Structure and Functions with labeled diagram
Cell proliferation- Definition, assay, differentiation, diseases
Cell Wall (Plant, Fungal, Bacterial)- Structure and Functions
Centrioles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Chloroplasts- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Cilia and Flagella- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Cilia- Definition, Structure, Formation, Types, Functions, Examples
Connective Tissue- definition, structure, cells, types, functions, diseases
Cytokinesis- Definition and Process (in animal and plant cells)
Cytoplasm- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Cytoskeleton- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Dendritic Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
Embryo Transfer
Endocytosis and Exocytosis (Endocytosis vs Exocytosis)
Endocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Eosinophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
Epithelial Tissue – Definition, types, functions, examples
Epithelial tissue vs Connective tissue- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
Eukaryotic Cells- Definition, Characteristics, Structure, Examples
Exocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples
Facilitated Diffusion- definition, principle, factors, examples
Flagella- Definition, Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples
Fluid Mosaic Model
Golgi Apparatus- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Interphase- definition, stages, cell cycle, diagram, video
Lysosomes- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Macrophages- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
Mast Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
Meiosis- definition, purpose, stages, applications with diagram
Membrane Carbohydrate
Membrane Lipids
Membrane Proteins
Metaphase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Metaphase 1 and 2)
Microfilaments- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Microtubules- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Microvilli- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Mitochondria- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Mitosis- definition, purpose, stages, applications with diagram
Monocytes- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Subsets, Functions
Natural Killer (NK) Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
Neutrophils – Definition, structure, count, range, functions
Nucleosome Model of Chromosome
Nucleus- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Osmosis- definition, types, examples, (Osmosis vs Diffusion)
Passive Transport
Peroxisomes- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Pinocytosis- definition, steps, types, examples, (vs phagocytosis)
Plant cell vs Animal cell- Definition, 25 Differences with cell organelles
Plant cell- definition, labeled diagram, structure, parts, organelles
Plasmodesmata- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Plastids- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram
Platelets (Thrombocytes)- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
Prophase in mitosis and meiosis (Prophase 1 and 2)
Ribosomes- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Rough vs Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
Sandwich (Davson–Danielli) model of cell membrane
Secretory Vesicles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Simple diffusion- definition, principle, examples, applications
Storage Granules- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram
Telophase in Mitosis and Meiosis (Telophase I, II)
Types of Plant Cell – Definition, Structure, Functions, Diagrams
Vacuoles- Definition, Structure, Types, Functions and Diagram
Vesicles- Definition, Structure, Functions and Diagram

 

Developmental Biology Notes

Blastocyst- Stages, Significance
Cell Cycle- Definition, Phases, Regulation and Checkpoints
Comparative Embryology- Principle, Significance
Development of Caenorhabditis elegans
Developmental Biology
Drosophila Development- Stages, Significance
Epiblast- Development and Significance
Evolutionary Embryology
Gastrulation- Process, Consequences
Heart Embryology- Development of the Heart
Human Embryo Transfer
Human Embryogenesis
Implantation- Process, Events, Significance
Introduction to Embryology
Morula- Stage, Development, Significance
Oogenesis / Ovulation / Ovarian cycle- Definition, Phages, Process
Spermatogenesis- Definition, Stages and Process with figure
Stages of Childbirth
The Prenatal Developmental Period
Week by week pregnancy (Baby and body development with tips)
Zebrafish Development

 

Difference Between Notes

10 differences between genomics and proteomics
12 Differences between antigen and antibody (Antigen vs Antibody)
12 Differences between Pneumococcus and Viridans streptococci
12 Differences between Primary and Secondary Immune Response
16 Differences Between Antigenic Shift and Antigenic Drift
17 Differences between B Cells and T Cells (B Cells vs T Cells)
17 Differences between Meningitis and Encephalitis
17 Differences between Serum and Plasma (Serum vs Plasma)
19 Differences between Active Immunity and Passive Immunity
19 Differences between cilia and flagella (cilia vs flagella)
19 Differences between RBC and WBC (RBC vs WBC)
20 Differences between Humoral Immunity and Cell mediated Immunity
20 Differences between Staphylococcus and Streptococcus
21 Difference between diarrhea and dysentery (diarrhea vs dysentery)
21 Difference between O antigen and H antigen (O vs H antigen)
23 Differences between DNA Replication and Transcription
23 Differences between Yeasts and Molds (Yeasts vs Molds)
25 Differences between Anthrax bacilli and Anthracoid bacilli
27 Differences between Arteries and Veins (Arteries vs Veins)
28 Differences Between Bacteria and Virus (Bacteria vs Virus)
29 Difference between exotoxins and endotoxins
29 Differences between Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity
30 Differences between DNA and RNA (DNA vs RNA)
31 Differences Between Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria
32 Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis (Mitosis vs Meiosis)
32 Differences between Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae
33 Difference between enzymes and hormones (enzymes vs hormones)
36 Differences between light and electron microscope
40 Differences between Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum
47 Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
8 Differences between cytokines and chemokines
Absorption vs Adsorption- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples
Actin vs Myosin- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
Active vs passive transport- Definition, 18 Major Differences, Examples
Acute disease vs Chronic disease- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration- Definition, 11 Differences, Examples
Agglutination vs Precipitation- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
Amphibians vs Reptiles- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Angiosperm vs Gymnosperm- Definition, 27 Major Differences, Examples
Archaea vs Bacteria- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples
Autotroph vs Heterotroph- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
Bacteria vs Fungi- Definition, 21 Major Differences, Examples
Biotic vs Abiotic Factors- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples
Bone vs Cartilage- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Breathing vs Respiration- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Celsius scale vs Fahrenheit scale- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples
Chromosome vs Chromatid- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples
Cold-blooded vs Warm-blooded animals- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples
Communicable vs non-communicable diseases- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples
Diploid vs Haploid- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
Endonuclease vs Exonuclease- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples
Epithelial tissue vs Connective tissue- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
Exocrine vs Endocrine Glands- Definition, 8 Differences, Examples
Flora vs Fauna- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
Habitat vs Niche- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
Heterochromatin vs Euchromatin- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples
Homozygous vs Heterozygous- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples
Hypersensitivity Type I, II, III and IV- Summary in table form
Incomplete dominance vs Co-dominance- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples
Independent vs Dependent variables- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples
Inhalation vs Exhalation- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Introns vs Exons- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
Isolation vs Quarantine- Definition, 8 Differences, Examples
MHC Class I vs MHC Class II- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Monocots vs Dicots- Definition, 26 Differences, Examples
Natural vs Artificial Selection- Definition, 17 Major Differences, Examples
Nitrification vs Denitrification- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
Oviparous vs Viviparous- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples
Phenotype vs Genotype- Definition, 10 Major Differences, Examples
Phytoplankton vs Zooplankton- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples
Plant cell vs Animal cell- Definition, 25 Differences with cell organelles
Pollination vs Fertilization- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
Primary vs Secondary Metabolites- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples
Primary vs Secondary Succession- Definition, 12 Differences, Examples
Quantitative vs Qualitative Data- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
Rough vs Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids- Definition, 20 Differences, Examples
Spermatogenesis vs Oogenesis- Definition, 18 Differences, Examples
Taproot vs Fibrous root- Definition, 17 Major Differences, Examples
Transcription vs Translation- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
Type I Error and Type II Error- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples
Vascular vs Non-vascular plants- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples
Voluntary vs Involuntary Muscles- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples
Xylem vs Phloem- Definition, 18 Major Differences, Examples

 

Diseases Notes

Acute disease vs Chronic disease- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
Candidiasis and types of Candidiasis
Communicable vs non-communicable diseases- Definition, 17 Differences, Examples
Disease Prevention
Diseases and Disorders of the female reproductive system
Diseases and disorders of the male reproductive system
Disorders and Diseases of the Human Digestive System
E. coli Pathotypes- ETEC, EPEC, EHEC, EAEC, EIEC, DAEC
Endemic Diseases
Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)
Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)
Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)
Hand washing steps and guidelines by WHO and CDC with video
Mode of Transmission of Diseases
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC)
Signs and Symptoms of COVID-19 with Risk factors
Source and Reservoir of Infection
The Germ Theory of Disease
Treatment options and Vaccines updates of COVID-19
Type 1 Diabetes vs Type 2 Diabetes (14 major differences)
Types of Crystals in Urine
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2018

 

Environmental Microbiology Notes

Amensalism (Antagonism) Interaction- Definition, Types, Examples
Bioremediation
Carbon Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
Commensalism Interaction- Definition, Types and Examples
Competition Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
Eutrophication- Definition, Causes, Types, Process, Examples
Microbial interaction and its types with examples
Microbiology of extreme environments (Types and Examples)
Mutualism Interaction- Definition, Symbiosis, Types and Examples
Parasitism Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
Phosphorus Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
Predation Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
Protocooperation Interaction- Definition and Examples
Sulfur Cycle- Definition, Steps, Examples, Significance, Human Impacts
Trophic level- Definition, food chain, food web, pyramid, examples

 

Epidemiology Notes

Branches of Epidemiology
Case-Control Study
Cross-Sectional Study
Descriptive Studies- Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations
Disease Control
Disease Prevention
Endemic Diseases
Epidemic vs Pandemic with Definition and Examples
Epidemic- Causes, Types, and Response
Epidemiologic Triad- Agent, Host, Environment
Epidemiological Markers
Epidemiology- History, Objectives and Types
Error- Types, Sources and Control
Field Trials
Isolation vs Quarantine- Definition, 8 Differences, Examples
Mode of Transmission of Diseases
Outbreak Investigations- Objectives, Steps, Difficulties
Pandemic- definition, features, causes, effects, examples
Phases of Clinical Trials for Drugs and Vaccine Development
Predictive Value
Randomized Controlled Trial (RCTs)
Scope of Epidemiology
Sensitivity and Specificity
Source and Reservoir of Infection
Theories of Disease
Types of Bias in Epidemiology

 

Food Microbiology Notes

Factors affecting the growth of microorganisms in food
Immune Booster Foods
Lactobacillus acidophilus- An Overview
Microbial Food Spoilage- Types of microorganisms with examples
Microbial spoilage and preservation of cereal and cereal products
Microbial spoilage of Beverages and their preservation
Microbial spoilage of canned foods and its preservation (Canning)
Microbial spoilage of egg and egg products
Microbial spoilage of meat and meat products
Microbial Spoilage of Milk and Milk Products (Cream, Butter, Cheese, Yoghurt, Ice-cream)
Milk Pasteurization- Definition, Methods, Steps, Significance
Preservation of egg and egg products from microbial spoilage
Preservation of meat and meat products from microbial spoilage
Preservation of milk and milk products from microbial spoilage
Spoilage of chocolate and confectionery and its preservation
Spoilage of sugar and sugar products and their preservations
Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP) | Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins

 

Human Anatomy Notes

Adrenal Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Bone vs Cartilage- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Breast- Definition, Structure, Functions and Breast Cancer
Diseases and Disorders of the female reproductive system
Diseases and disorders of the male reproductive system
Disorders and Diseases of the Human Digestive System
Endocrine System- Definition, Glands, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Exocrine vs Endocrine Glands- Definition, 8 Differences, Examples
Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions
Human Female Reproductive System- Organs, Structure, Functions
Human Male Reproductive System- Organs, Structure, Functions
Integumentary System- definition, organs, functions, diseases
Pancreas- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Parathyroid Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Pineal Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Pituitary Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
The Human Digestive System- Organs, Functions and Diagram
Thymus Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Thyroid Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Voluntary vs Involuntary Muscles- Definition, 16 Differences, Examples

 

Human Physiology Notes

Adrenal Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Breathing vs Respiration- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats
Endocrine System- Definition, Glands, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Exocrine vs Endocrine Glands- Definition, 8 Differences, Examples
Functions of The Human Digestive System
Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions
Implantation- Process, Events, Significance
Inhalation vs Exhalation- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Integumentary System- definition, organs, functions, diseases
Menstrual Cycle- definition, hormones, phases, diagram
Oogenesis / Ovulation / Ovarian cycle- Definition, Phages, Process
Pancreas- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Parathyroid Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Physiology of Human Digestion
Pineal Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Pituitary Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Spermatogenesis vs Oogenesis- Definition, 18 Differences, Examples
Spermatogenesis- Definition, Stages and Process with figure
Stages of Childbirth
Thymus Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Thyroid Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Week by week pregnancy (Baby and body development with tips)

 

Immunology Notes

12 Differences between antigen and antibody (Antigen vs Antibody)
12 Differences between Primary and Secondary Immune Response
16 Differences Between Antigenic Shift and Antigenic Drift
17 Differences between B Cells and T Cells (B Cells vs T Cells)
17 Differences between Serum and Plasma (Serum vs Plasma)
19 Differences between Active Immunity and Passive Immunity
19 Differences between RBC and WBC (RBC vs WBC)
20 Differences between Humoral Immunity and Cell mediated Immunity
29 Differences between Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity
8 Differences between cytokines and chemokines
Active Immunization- Advantages and Drawbacks
Agglutination – definition, reactions and applications
Agglutination vs Precipitation- Definition, 14 Major Differences, Examples
Anatomical Barriers of Immune System- Skin and Mucus
Antibody- Definition, Structure, Properties, Types, Classes, Applications
Antibody- Introduction, Structure and Classes
Antigen- Definition, Properties, Structure, Types, Examples
Apoptosis- definition, pathways, assay, examples (vs Necrosis)
Autoimmune Disease
B cell (B lymphocyte)- Definition, Types, Development, Applications
Basophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
Biology of the B Lymphocyte
Blood Cells- Definition and Types with Structure and Functions
Bone Marrow- Types, Structure and Functions
Cells of the immune system
Classical Pathway of Complement Activation
Competitive ELISA Protocol and Animation
Complement Activation- Classical, Alternative and Lectin Pathways
Complement Components
Complement Fixation Test- Steps, Advantages and Disadvantages
Complement- Properties and Nomenclature
Coomb’s Test- Direct and Indirect Coomb’s Test
Counter Current Immunoelectrophoresis
Cytokines- Mechanism of action and Functions
Dendritic Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
Eastern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
Endocytosis- Definition, Process and Types with Examples
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
Eosinophils- Definition, Structure, Immunity and Functions
Factors affecting Immunogenicity
Hypersensitivity Type I, II, III and IV- Summary in table form
Hypersensitivity- Introduction, Causes, Mechanism and Types
Immune Booster Foods
Immunoelectrophoresis- Principle, Procedure, Results and Applications, Advantages and Limitations
Immunofluorescence
Immunoglobulin A (IgA)- Structure, Subclasses and Functions
Immunoglobulin D (IgD)- Structure and Functions
Immunoglobulin E (IgE)- Structure and Functions
Immunoglobulin G (IgG)- Structure, Subclasses and Functions
Immunoglobulin M (IgM)- Structure and Functions
Indirect ELISA- Introduction, Steps, Advantages and Protocol
Inflammation
Innate Immune System- An Introduction
Introduction to Antigen
Introduction to Antigen-Antibody Reactions
Introduction to B Cells also called B-Lymphocytes
Latex Agglutination Test
Lymph Nodes- Structure and Functions
Lymphocytes- Types and Functions
Macrophages- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
Macrophages- Introductions and Functions
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)- Types and Importance
Major Histocompatibility Complex I- Structure, Mechanism and Functions
Major Histocompatibility Complex II- Structure, Mechanism and Functions
Mast Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions
MHC Class I vs MHC Class II- Definition, 15 Major Differences, Examples
Monoclonal Antibodies- Types, Uses and Limitations
Monocytes- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Subsets, Functions
Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissues (MALT)
Natural Killer (NK) Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
Neutralization Test- Introduction and Types
Neutrophils – Definition, structure, count, range, functions
Non-Specific Immune Response
Opsonization- Definition, Mechanism, Opsonins, Examples
Ouchterlony Double Immunodiffusion technique
Passive immunization with advantages and drawbacks
Phagocytosis- definition, mechanism, steps with example
Physiological barriers of immune system
Platelets (Thrombocytes)- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Functions
Precipitation Reaction – definition and applications
Properties and Function of different classes of Antibodies
Radial Immunodiffusion- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results, Applications, Advantages and Limitations
Radioimmunoassay- Principle, Uses and Limitations
Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) Test
Rh Blood Group System
Ring Precipitation Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results and Examples
Rocket Immunoelectrophoresis- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results, Applications, Advantages and Limitations
Sandwich ELISA- Steps and Advantages
Spleen- Structure and Functions
Stem Cells- Definition, Properties, Types, Uses, Challenges
Structure of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
T Cell (T Lymphocyte)- Definition, Types, Development, Applications
Thymus Gland- Definition, Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders
Thymus- Structure and Functions
Type 1 (Anaphylactic) Hypersensitivity Reaction
Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples
Type III (Immune Complex) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples
Type IV (Cell Mediated) Hypersensitivity- Mechanism and Examples
Types of Agglutination Reactions
Types of antigen on the basis of source and immune response
Types of Complement Fixation Test
Types of Precipitation Reactions
Vaccines- Introduction and Types with Examples
Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test
Western Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
What is Immunology?
Widal Test- Objective, Principle, Procedure, Types, Results, Advantages and Limitations

 

Instrumentation Notes

14 Types of Chromatography (Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses)
22 Types of Spectroscopy with Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses
Affinity Chromatography
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
Autoclave- definition, parts, principle, procedure, types, uses
Beer-Lambert Law
Bioreactor- Definition, Design, Principle, Parts, Types, Applications, Limitations
Cell Disruption Methods
Centrifugation- Principle, Types and Applications
Chromatography- definition, principle, types, applications
Column Chromatography
Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications
Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses
Gamma-ray (γ-ray) Spectroscopy
Gas chromatography- definition, principle, working, uses
Gel Filtration Chromatography
Gel Permeation Chromatography
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
Immunoelectrophoresis- Principle, Procedure, Results and Applications, Advantages and Limitations
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy
Instruments used in Microbiology Lab with Principle and Uses
Ion Exchange Chromatography
Laminar flow hood/cabinet- definition, parts, principle, types, uses
Mass Spectrometry (MS)- Principle, Working, Instrumentation, Steps, Applications
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
Paper Chromatography
Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)
Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)
Solid State Fermentation (SSF)
Spectrophotometer- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications
Thin Layer Chromatography
Types of Centrifuge and Centrifugation (definition, principle, uses)
Ultracentrifuge- Definition, Principle, Types, Parts, Procedure, Uses
UV Spectroscopy- Principle, Instrumentation, Applications
X-Ray Spectroscopy- Principle, Instrumentation and Applications

 

Laboratory Tests Notes

Anisocytosis
Coomb’s Test- Direct and Indirect Coomb’s Test
Ketones in urine (ketonuria) and Ketones in urine test
MCH Blood Test- Definition, Calculation, Results, High and Low MCH value
MPV Blood Test- Definition, Calculation, Results, High and Low MPV value
Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) Test
Sample collection and Diagnosis of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2)
Types of Crystals in Urine
Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test

 

Microscopy Notes

36 Differences between light and electron microscope
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
Brightfield Microscope (Compound Light Microscope)
Compound microscope- definition, labeled diagram, parts, uses
Confocal Microscope
Darkfield Microscope- Definition, Principle and Uses
Digital Microscope
Dissecting microscope (Stereo or stereoscopic microscope)
Electron microscope- definition, principle, types, uses, images
Fluorescence Microscope from LEAM Solution Inc
Fluorescence Microscopy- definition, principle, parts, uses
How these 26 things look like under the microscope (with diagrams)
Inverted Microscope
Light Microscope- definition, principle, types, parts, magnification
Parts of a microscope with functions and labeled diagram
Phase contrast Microscopy- definition, principle, parts, uses
Pocket Microscope
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Simple Microscope- Definition, Principle, Parts, Applications
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
Types of Microscopes
USB Microscope- definition, principle, parts, examples, uses

 

Molecular Biology Notes

23 Differences between DNA Replication and Transcription
7 Types of RNA with Structure and Functions
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
Bacterial Conjugation- Definition, Principle, Process, Examples
Bacterial Transduction- Definition, Principle, Steps, Examples
Bacterial Transformation- definition, principle, steps, examples
Central Dogma- Replication, Transcription, Translation
Cloning Vectors
Different forms of DNA- A form, B form, Z form
DNA Fingerprinting- Principle, Methods, Applications
DNA Ladders (1 kb, 1 kb plus, 100 bp, 100 bp plus) and Uses
DNA Methylation- Definition, Principle, Significance, Control
DNA Microarray
DNA Polymerase- definition, structure, types (vs RNA polymerase)
DNA Replication- definition, enzymes, steps, mechanism, diagram
DNA Sequencing- Maxam–Gilbert and Sanger Dideoxy Method
DNA Transcription (RNA Synthesis)- Article, Diagrams and Video
DNA- Structure, Properties, Types, Forms, Functions
Eastern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
Endonuclease vs Exonuclease- Definition, 11 Major Differences, Examples
Eukaryotic DNA Isolation Protocol
Eukaryotic DNA Replication- Features, Enzymes, Process, Significance
Eukaryotic Transcription
Flow Cytometry-Definition, Principle, Parts, Steps, Types, Uses
Gene Cloning- Requirements, Principle, Steps, Applications
Gene Expression
Gene Prediction- Importance and Methods
Genomics
Introns vs Exons- Definition, 12 Major Differences, Examples
Lac operon- definition, structure, Inducers, diagram
Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)
Northern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
Nucleosome Model of Chromosome
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)- Principle, Steps, Applications
Post Translational Modification
Prokaryotic DNA Replication- Enzymes, Steps and Significance
Prokaryotic Transcription- Enzymes, Steps, Significance
Prokaryotic Translation (Protein Synthesis)
Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE)
Real Time PCR- Principle, Process, Markers, Advantages, Uses
Recombinant DNA Technology- Steps, Applications and Limitations
Regulation of protein synthesis in Prokaryotes
Regulation of Translation In Eukaryotes
Restriction Enzyme (Restriction Endonuclease)
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
RNA Isolation Protocol
RNA polymerase- Definition, Types and Functions
RNA Splicing- definition, process, mechanism, types, errors, uses
RNA- Properties, Structure, Types and Functions
Southern Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
The Earth BioGenome Project (EBP)
The Human Genome Project
The Wobble Hypothesis
Transcription vs Translation- Definition, 15 Differences, Examples
Translation (Protein Synthesis) in Eukaryotes
Translation (Protein Synthesis)- Definition, Enzymes and Steps
Transposable elements- definition, types, examples, applications
Tryptophan (Trp) Operon
Types of PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) – definition and uses
Vector- Definition, Features, Types, Examples, Applications, Limitations
Watson and Crick DNA Model
Western Blot- Definition, Principle, Steps, Results, Applications
What is Sensitivity, Specificity, False positive, False negative?
What is Southern Blotting?
What is Western blotting?
Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)

 

Mycology Notes

23 Differences between Yeasts and Molds (Yeasts vs Molds)
Alternaria alternata- An Overview
Aspergillus clavatus- An Overview
Aspergillus flavus- An Overview
Aspergillus fumigatus- An Overview
Aspergillus niger- An Overview
Blastomyces dermatitidis- An Overview
Calcofluor White Staining
Candida albicans- An Overview
Candida glabrata- An Overview
Candida parapsilosis- An Overview
Candida tropicalis- An Overview
Candidiasis and types of Candidiasis
Characteristics of Fungi
Chromoblastomycosis (Chromomycosis)- An Overview
Classification of Fungi
Coccidioidomycosis- An Overview
Cryptococcus neoformans- An Overview
Epidermophyton floccosum- An Overview
Fusarium spp- An Overview
Grocott-Gomori’s Methenamine Silver Staining
Lactophenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) Staining
Microsporum spp- An Overview
Penicillium chrysogenum- An Overview
Rhizopus spp- An Overview
Sporothrix schenckii- An Overview
Trichophyton spp- An Overview
Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)

 

Parasitology Notes

40 Differences between Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum
Classification of Protozoa
Giemsa Stain- Principle, Procedure, Results, Interpretation
Host-Parasite Interactions
Parasitism Interaction- Definition and Types with Examples
Thick Blood Smear and Thin Blood Smear
Wheatley Trichrome Staining

 

Pharmacology Notes

Beta (β) Lactamase Test- Objectives, Principle, Procedure, Results
Beta-Lactamase and Ambler classification
Cell Membrane Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
Cell wall synthesis inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
DNA Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
Epsilometer test (E test)- Principle, Procedure, Results, Advantages
Folic acid synthesis inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
In Silico drug designing and role of bioinformatics
Kirby Bauer Disc Diffusion Method For Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Microbial Production of Penicillin- Definition, Biosynthesis, Process, Uses
Mycolic acid biosynthesis inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
Protein Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance
RNA Synthesis Inhibitors- Definition, Examples, Inhibition, Resistance

 

Product Reviews

Fluorescence Microscope from LEAM Solution Inc

 

Protocols

Bacterial Growth Curve Protocol
Brain Lipid Extraction Protocol
Eukaryotic DNA Isolation Protocol
Isolation of Actinomycetes from Soil sample
Isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) from Soil sample
Isolation of Mitochondria from Plants, Yeast Cells, Mice, Cell Culture
Oxygen Release in Photosynthesis Protocol
Protocol of chloroplast isolation
Protocol: Phenol-chloroform extraction of prokaryotic DNA
Rapid Method for Enumeration of E. coli Biotype I
RNA Isolation Protocol
Water Quality Analysis by Membrane Filter (MF) Technique

 

Reports and Guidelines

Hand washing steps and guidelines by WHO and CDC with video
WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2018

 

Research Methodology Notes

ANOVA- definition, one-way, two-way, table, examples, uses
Chi-square test
Common mistakes in Proposal writing
Data and its types
Descriptive Studies- Types, Applications, Advantages, Limitations
Independent vs Dependent variables- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Data
Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis with 9 differences
P-value- definition, formula, table, finding p-value, significance
Primary Data and Secondary Data
Quantitative vs Qualitative Data- Definition, 13 Differences, Examples
Questionnaire method of data collection
Questionnaire- Types, Format, Questions
Questionnaires and Schedules
T-test- definition, formula, types, applications, example
Type I Error and Type II Error- Definition, 10 Differences, Examples
Types of Bias in Epidemiology
Z-test- definition, formula, examples, uses, z-test vs t-test

 

Staining Notes

Acid Fast Stain (Kinyoun-Cold Method)- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Acid Fast Stain- Principle, Reagents, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Acridine Orange Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Albert Staining- Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Results, Interpretation
Auramine- Rhodamine Staining
Calcofluor White Staining
Capsule Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Collagen Hybridizing Peptide Staining
Endospore Staining- Types, principle, procedure and Interpretation
Flagella Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Giemsa Stain- Principle, Procedure, Results, Interpretation
Gram Stain- Principle, Reagents, Procedure, Steps, Results
Grocott-Gomori’s Methenamine Silver Staining
Hematoxylin and eosin stain (H and E stain or HE stain)
Iron-Hematoxylin Staining
Lactophenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) Staining
Masson’s Trichrome Staining
Negative staining of Viruses
Negative Staining- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Papanicolaou Staining (Pap stain) for Pap Smear / Pap Test
Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) Staining
Positive staining of Viruses
Romanowsky Stains- Principle, Types, Applications
Silver Staining- Principle, Procedure, Applications
Simple Staining- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Spore Stain- Principle, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Sudan Black B Staining
Wheatley Trichrome Staining
Ziehl-Neelsen Staining- Principle and Procedure with Results

 

Syllabus

AP Biology Course Description / Syllabus 2019-20
Cambridge AS and A Level Biology 9700 Syllabus 2019-2021
Cambridge AS and A Level Biology 9700 Syllabus 2022-2024
CBSE Class 11 Biology Syllabus (2020-2021)
CBSE Class 12 Biology Syllabus (2020-2021)
Class 11 Biology (Botany + Zoology) Syllabus 2020 (Nepal)
Class 12 Biology (Botany + Zoology) Syllabus 2020 (Nepal)
International Baccalaureate (IB) Biology Syllabus (Core+Options)
T.U. B.Sc. 1st Year General Microbiology Syllabus (Nepal)
T.U. B.Sc. 1st Year Zoology (Non-Chordata and Protochordata) Syllabus
T.U. B.Sc. 2nd Year Microbiology (Biochem, Biotech) Syllabus

 

Top 10

Top 10 Microbiology Journals with Impact Factor (updated 2019)
Top 10 Microbiology Universities in Germany (Updated 2021)
Top 10 Microbiology Universities in the United States (2021)
Top 50 Microbiology Universities in the World (Updated 2021)
Top and Best Biology Websites or Blogs of 2021 for Study Notes

 

Virology Notes

Bacteriophage- Definition, Structure, Life Cycles, Applications, Phage Therapy
Classification of virus
Coltivirus- An Overview
Coronavirus- An Overview
COVID-19 related free online courses with certificate
Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus- An Overview
Different Types of COVID-19 Tests with Advantages, Limitations
Ebola Virus- An Overview
Electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) images of SARS-CoV-2
Hanta Virus- An Overview
Hepatitis A Virus- An Overview
Hepatitis C virus- An Overview
Hepatitis E Virus- An Overview
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)- An Overview
How viruses cause disease?
Human Astrovirus- An Overview
Human Cytomegalovirus- An Overview
Influenza A Virus- An Overview
Japanese Encephalitis (JE) Virus- An Overview
Lassa Virus- An Overview
Measles Virus- An Overview
Mumps Virus- An Overview
Norwalk Virus (Norovirus)- An Overview
Oncogenic Viruses- An Overview
Polio Virus- An Overview
Positive staining of Viruses
Prevention and Control of COVID-19
Rabies Virus- An Overview
Rotavirus- An Overview
Sample collection and Diagnosis of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2)
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV)
Signs and Symptoms of COVID-19 with Risk factors
Structure and Genome of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) with diagram
Torovirus- An Overview
Transmission, pathogenesis, replication of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)
Treatment options and Vaccines updates of COVID-19
Varicella Zoster Virus- An Overview
Viral Transport Media (VTM)- Principle, Preparation, Uses, Limitations
Virus Cultivation- Purposes and Methods
Viruses- Structure, Replication and Diagnosis