Sagar Aryal, PhD 
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. Until about the 1880s, people still believed that life could form out of thin air and … Read more
The E-test (Epsilometer test) is an “exponential gradient” method used to determine antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms. It is a cost-effective tool that has been developed to provide a direct quantification … Read more
Microorganisms are present everywhere on earth which includes humans, animals, plants and other living creatures, soil, water and atmosphere. Microbes can multiply in all three habitats except in the atmosphere. … Read more
Assuming certain conditions, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium thus proposes that allelic frequency of a population will stay stable over time. Conditions of the Hardy-Weinberg population The Equation Mathematically, If there is … Read more
Principle of DNA Fingerprinting Methods of DNA Fingerprinting Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of short tandem repeats (STRs) are two main DNA tests widely used … Read more
Total RNA Isolation from Bacterial Cells Principle of RNA Isolation Total RNA is isolated and separated from DNA and protein after extraction with a solution called as Trizol. Trizol is … Read more
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology develops a set of transferable skills, including data handling, practical problem-solving, and the application of the scientific method. Learners develop relevant attitudes, such … Read more
Nutritional Types of Bacteria On the basis of energy source, organisms are designated as: Phototrophs: Chemotrophs: On the basis of the electron source, organisms are designated as: Lithotrophs: Organotrophs: Thus, … Read more
Structure of Immunoglobulin G (IgG) IgG Subclasses IgG1 It comprises 60 to 65% of the total main subclass IgG, and predominantly responsible for the thymus-mediated immune response against proteins and polypeptide … Read more
Hantavirus is a rodent-borne zoonotic virus that causes severe human illnesses, primarily hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). Structure of Hantavirus Genome of Hantavirus Epidemiology and … Read more
