{"id":41998,"date":"2023-08-03T15:08:45","date_gmt":"2023-08-03T09:23:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/"},"modified":"2023-08-03T15:08:45","modified_gmt":"2023-08-03T09:23:45","slug":"heart-valves","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/","title":{"rendered":"Heart Valves: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p><strong>Heart valves are the specialized flap or cusp-like structures inside the heart composed primarily of dense connective tissues that maintain the one-way flow of the blood inside the heart i.e., prevent the backward flow of the blood.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>They are the essential anatomical structures inside the heart that control the direction and flow of the <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/blood-components-formation-functions\/\" data-type=\"post\" data-id=\"40548\">blood<\/a>, ensuring efficient blood circulation through the heart chambers. The differential blood pressure inside the heart chambers causes the valves to open or close, controlling the direction of the movement of blood inside the heart.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_65 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title \" >Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/#types-of-heart-valves\" title=\"Types of Heart Valves\">Types of Heart Valves<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/#a-atrioventricular-valves-av-valves\" title=\"a. Atrioventricular Valves (AV Valves)\">a. Atrioventricular Valves (AV Valves)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/#b-semilunar-valves\" title=\"b. Semilunar Valves\">b. Semilunar Valves<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/#structure-of-heart-valves\" title=\"Structure of Heart Valves\">Structure of Heart Valves<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/#functions-of-heart-valves\" title=\"Functions of Heart Valves\">Functions of Heart Valves<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/#valve-disorders\" title=\"Valve Disorders\">Valve Disorders<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/#references\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"types-of-heart-valves\"><\/span><strong>Types of Heart Valves<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The human heart has four valves classified &#8211; according to their anatomical location and function &#8211; into two categories, first the <strong>Atrioventricular valves<\/strong> (containing the <strong><em>bicuspid<\/em><\/strong> and <strong><em>tricuspid<\/em><\/strong> valves), and second the <strong>Semilunar valves<\/strong> (containing the <strong><em>pulmonary<\/em><\/strong> and <strong><em>aortic<\/em><\/strong> valves).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"a-atrioventricular-valves-av-valves\"><\/span><strong>a. Atrioventricular Valves (AV Valves)<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Those valves that are located in between the atrium and ventricles and prevent the backward flow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium are called the atrioventricular (AV) valves. Chordae tendineae hold them to the walls of the ventricles and attach them to papillary muscles preventing them from inverting. The fibrous ring known as the valve annulus serves as additional support for the AV valves. This annulus anchors the valve cusps and offers stability to them. There are two AV valves, the bicuspid valve, and the tricuspid valve. The closure of these valves produces the characteristic <strong><em>\u2018lub\u2019<\/em><\/strong> sound of the heartbeat.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Bicuspid Valve (<strong>Mitral valve<\/strong>)<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>It is also known as the mitral valve and is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle. It has <strong>2 cusps<\/strong> (leaflets) (hence got the name bicuspid) resembling a <em>bishop\u2019s mitre<\/em> (hence got the name mitral). This valve opens when the blood pressure inside the left atrium exceeds the pressure inside the left ventricle and allows the flow of blood to the left ventricle and closes at the end of the atrial contraction preventing the backflow of the blood in the atrium during the ventricular contraction.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"2\">\n<li><strong>Tricuspid Valve<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>It is the valve located between the right atrium and the right ventricle. It has <strong>three cusps<\/strong>; hence got the name tricuspid. During the atrial systole, this valve opens and allows the blood to flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle and prevents the backward flow of the blood by being closed during the ventricular systole.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Heart-Valves.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-41142\"\/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Heart Valves<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"b-semilunar-valves\"><\/span><strong>b. Semilunar Valves<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Semilunar valves (SL valves) are the heart valves located in between the ventricles and the base of the two large <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/arteries\/\" data-type=\"post\" data-id=\"41066\">arteries<\/a>, viz. the aorta and the pulmonary artery. They prevent returning of blood back to the ventricles from the arteries after the ventricular systole. These valves have three half-moons (semilunar) shaped flaps (cusps); hence got the name \u2018<em>semilunar<\/em>\u2019. There are two semilunar valves, namely the pulmonary valve and the aortic valve. These valves lack chordae tendineae and are supported by the elastic arterial walls, sinuses of Valsalva (dilated area at the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery), and valve annulus. Closure of these two valves produces the characteristic <strong><em>\u2018dub\u2019<\/em><\/strong> sound of a heartbeat.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong><em>Pulmonary Valve<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>It is located at the base of the pulmonary artery. During the ventricular systole, this valve opens, due to pressure differences between the right ventricle and inside the pulmonary artery, allowing the deoxygenated blood to rush inside the pulmonary aorta. When the pressure inside the pulmonary artery exceeds the pressure inside the right ventricle, this valve closes preventing returning of the pumped blood to the ventricle.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"2\">\n<li><strong><em>Aortic Valve<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>It is located at the base of the aorta.&nbsp; During ventricular systole, when higher pressure is buildup inside the left ventricle than in the aorta, this valve opens and allows the blood to be pumped inside the aorta. Soon at the end of ventricular systole, when the blood pressure becomes reversed, this valve closes and prevents the blood from returning to the left ventricle.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"structure-of-heart-valves\"><\/span><strong>Structure of Heart Valves<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Heart valves are flap\/cusp-like structures made of highly organized <strong>extracellular matrix<\/strong> (ECM) primarily containing collagen, elastin, and proteoglycans and <strong>valve interstitial cells<\/strong> (VIC) covered by a layer of endothelial cells.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The mitral valve has two cusps, the anterior and the posterior cusp, and the tricuspid valve has three cusps, the anterior, the posterior, and the septal cusp. These cusps are attached to the papillary muscles by the chordae tendineae (fibrous chord of a tendon). The chordae tendineae provide anchorage and prevent the cusps from inverting during the ventricular systole.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>A fibrous ring called the valve annulus attaches all four valves to the myocardial wall providing support and stability.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>All the heart valves of humans are generally less than 1 mm thick. Structurally, the AV valves are slightly thicker than the SL valves, and the left-side valves are thicker than the right-sided valves. Despite their similar function, all valves are structurally and biochemically different than each other.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"functions-of-heart-valves\"><\/span><strong>Functions of Heart Valves<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>The mitral valve prevents the backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The tricuspid valve prevents the backflow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The pulmonary valve prevents the backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The aortic valve prevents the backflow of blood from the aorta to the left ventricle.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Aortic-Valve-Regurgitation-.jpg\" alt=\"Aortic Valve Regurgitation\u00a0\" class=\"wp-image-41143\"\/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><strong>Aortic Valve Regurgitation\u00a0<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"valve-disorders\"><\/span><strong>Valve Disorders<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Different cardiovascular diseases are associated with the disorder of valves. Such diseases of heart valves are called <strong><em>valvular heart diseases<\/em><\/strong>. Some common valvular heart diseases are tabulated below.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Disease&nbsp;<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Description<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Stenosis (aortic stenosis, pulmonary stenosis, mitral stenosis, tricuspid stenosis)\u00a0<\/td><td>A condition resulting from the narrowing of the heart valves, restricting the flow of blood.&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Regurgitation\u00a0<\/td><td>Incomplete closure of valves causing backflow of the blood.&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Infective Endocarditis<\/td><td>Infection of heart valves.<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Bicuspid Aortic Valve<\/td><td>A congenital disorder resulting in only two cusps in the aortic valve.&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Pulmonary atresia<\/td><td>A congenital condition where the pulmonary valve is malformed and remains closed.&nbsp;<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"references\"><\/span><strong>References<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Ross &amp; Wilson Anatomy &amp; Physiology in Health and Illness. 13th ed. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7020-7276-5<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Hinton, R. B., &amp; Yutzey, K. E. (2011). Heart Valve Structure and Function in Development and Disease. Annual review of physiology, 73, 29. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-physiol-012110-142145<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Heart valve. (2023, May 24). In Wikipedia. https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heart_valve<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>4 Heart Valves: What They Are and How They Work (clevelandclinic.org)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Heart valves: Diagrams, types, function, diseases, and more (medicalnewstoday.com)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Roles of Your Four Heart Valves | American Heart Association<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Heart valves anatomy: Tricuspid-aortic-mitral-pulmonary | Kenhub<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Heart valve disease &#8211; Symptoms and causes &#8211; Mayo Clinic<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Heart anatomy: Structure, valves, coronary vessels | Kenhub<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Heart Valves &#8211; Tricuspid &#8211; Aortic &#8211; Mitral &#8211; Pulmonary &#8211; TeachMeAnatomy<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nhlbi.nih.gov\/health\/heart\/blood-flow\" target=\"_blank\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.nhlbi.nih.gov\/health\/heart\/blood-flow\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">How the Heart Works &#8211; How Blood Flows through the Heart<\/a> | NHLBI, NIH<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Heart valves are the specialized flap or cusp-like structures inside the heart composed primarily of dense connective tissues that maintain the one-way flow of the blood inside the heart i.e., &#8230; <a title=\"Heart Valves: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/heart-valves\/\" aria-label=\"Read more about Heart Valves: Types, Structure, Functions, Diseases\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":16,"featured_media":41996,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[6190],"tags":[],"custom":{"td_video":"","featured_image":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/Heart-Valves.jpg","author":{"name":"Prashant Dahal","avatar":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/073138ccb44be2c7f33850b8ad66e8a0?s=96&d=mm&r=g"},"categories":[{"term_id":6190,"name":"Human Anatomy and Physiology","slug":"anatomy-and-physiology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":6190,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Human anatomy is the science that deals with the physical morphology and structure of the human body.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nHuman anatomy is further divided into two groups; gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy involves study related to anatomical structures that can be seen with unaided eyes, while microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures, histology, and cytology.\r\nHumans belong to the Subphylum Vertebrate of the Phylum Chordata as they have the characteristic internal skeleton with a backbone of vertebrae.\r\nOther typical mammalian structures in humans include hair, mammary glands, and highly developed sense organs.\r\nBesides, among mammals, humans have a predominantly two-legged (bipedal) posture, along with a highly developed intellectual.\r\nThe chemical composition of the human body is composed of water and organic compounds like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.\r\nThe human body is composed of specialized systems for different purposes; the digestive system for digestion, the respiratory system for respiration, the reproductive system for reproduction, and the skeletal and muscular system for movement.\r\nCells are the fundamental units of the human body consisting of trillions of cells in the body. The cells together form tissues.\r\nFour basic types of tissues are found in humans, each of which is specialized for a particular purpose; epithelial tissue for covering the body, muscular tissue for movement, nerve tissues for signaling, and connective tissue for transport of nutrients.\r\nThe following organization of the human body is organs. An organ is composed of a group of specialized tissues from a structural and functional unit.\r\nOrgans are followed by the system as the final organization of the human body. The body includes nine major organ systems, each composed of various organs and tissues that work together as a functional unit.\r\nInformation on human anatomy is essential during the analysis of signs of symptoms of different diseases and disease diagnoses.\r\nIt also allows an understanding of the relationship between different organ systems and the changes occurring in the body's anatomy during growth.\r\n\r\n<strong>Human physiology is a branch of natural science that deals with the functioning of the human body.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nIt includes various physiological activities like digestion, respiration, spermatogenesis, oogenesis, and excretion, all of which occur in a coordinated way between various organs and systems.\r\nPhysiology includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functioning of a healthy human body.\r\nA normal human body works as a result of the regulated system of networking between different systems. These interactions work towards maintaining homeostasis.\r\nThe concept of homeostasis is important in human physiology as it explains that the internal environment of an organism moves in a direction to maintain an equilibrium.\r\nIn the human body, homeostasis is maintained at the system level with each system trying to maintain its homeostasis.\r\nHuman physiology, like human anatomy, describes the mechanisms from the molecular to the cellular level, integrating the working of the entire body.\r\nBased on the information obtained via studies done on human physiology, it is understood that the cells, tissues, organs, and systems together work to maintain a healthy human body.\r\nBesides, certain compounds or chemicals produced in the body like enzymes and hormones also aid in the process of human physiology.\r\nA slight change in the working of a single organ in the body might affect the working of the entire body overall.\r\nHuman physiology is closely related to human anatomy where the anatomy of an organ or tissue plays a significant role in the physiology of the said organ or tissue.\r\nHuman physiology is also interrelated with clinical medicine and microbiology where different microorganisms found within the body aid in different processes like bacteria in the gut producing acid and other enzymes that aid in digestion.\r\nDuring the life cycle of humans, the body undergoes multiple changes which are influenced by changes in anatomy and changes in environmental factors.\u00a0 The physiology of the body thus adapts to such changes to maintain homeostasis.","parent":0,"count":74,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":6190,"category_count":74,"category_description":"<strong>Human anatomy is the science that deals with the physical morphology and structure of the human body.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nHuman anatomy is further divided into two groups; gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy involves study related to anatomical structures that can be seen with unaided eyes, while microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures, histology, and cytology.\r\nHumans belong to the Subphylum Vertebrate of the Phylum Chordata as they have the characteristic internal skeleton with a backbone of vertebrae.\r\nOther typical mammalian structures in humans include hair, mammary glands, and highly developed sense organs.\r\nBesides, among mammals, humans have a predominantly two-legged (bipedal) posture, along with a highly developed intellectual.\r\nThe chemical composition of the human body is composed of water and organic compounds like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.\r\nThe human body is composed of specialized systems for different purposes; the digestive system for digestion, the respiratory system for respiration, the reproductive system for reproduction, and the skeletal and muscular system for movement.\r\nCells are the fundamental units of the human body consisting of trillions of cells in the body. The cells together form tissues.\r\nFour basic types of tissues are found in humans, each of which is specialized for a particular purpose; epithelial tissue for covering the body, muscular tissue for movement, nerve tissues for signaling, and connective tissue for transport of nutrients.\r\nThe following organization of the human body is organs. An organ is composed of a group of specialized tissues from a structural and functional unit.\r\nOrgans are followed by the system as the final organization of the human body. The body includes nine major organ systems, each composed of various organs and tissues that work together as a functional unit.\r\nInformation on human anatomy is essential during the analysis of signs of symptoms of different diseases and disease diagnoses.\r\nIt also allows an understanding of the relationship between different organ systems and the changes occurring in the body's anatomy during growth.\r\n\r\n<strong>Human physiology is a branch of natural science that deals with the functioning of the human body.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nIt includes various physiological activities like digestion, respiration, spermatogenesis, oogenesis, and excretion, all of which occur in a coordinated way between various organs and systems.\r\nPhysiology includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functioning of a healthy human body.\r\nA normal human body works as a result of the regulated system of networking between different systems. These interactions work towards maintaining homeostasis.\r\nThe concept of homeostasis is important in human physiology as it explains that the internal environment of an organism moves in a direction to maintain an equilibrium.\r\nIn the human body, homeostasis is maintained at the system level with each system trying to maintain its homeostasis.\r\nHuman physiology, like human anatomy, describes the mechanisms from the molecular to the cellular level, integrating the working of the entire body.\r\nBased on the information obtained via studies done on human physiology, it is understood that the cells, tissues, organs, and systems together work to maintain a healthy human body.\r\nBesides, certain compounds or chemicals produced in the body like enzymes and hormones also aid in the process of human physiology.\r\nA slight change in the working of a single organ in the body might affect the working of the entire body overall.\r\nHuman physiology is closely related to human anatomy where the anatomy of an organ or tissue plays a significant role in the physiology of the said organ or tissue.\r\nHuman physiology is also interrelated with clinical medicine and microbiology where different microorganisms found within the body aid in different processes like bacteria in the gut producing acid and other enzymes that aid in digestion.\r\nDuring the life cycle of humans, the body undergoes multiple changes which are influenced by changes in anatomy and changes in environmental factors.\u00a0 The physiology of the body thus adapts to such changes to maintain homeostasis.","cat_name":"Human Anatomy and Physiology","category_nicename":"anatomy-and-physiology","category_parent":0}]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/41998"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/16"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=41998"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/41998\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/41996"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=41998"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=41998"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=41998"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}