{"id":41399,"date":"2023-08-03T15:01:55","date_gmt":"2023-08-03T09:16:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/"},"modified":"2023-08-03T15:01:55","modified_gmt":"2023-08-03T09:16:55","slug":"adrenal-gland","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/","title":{"rendered":"Adrenal Gland- Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal glands, also called suprarenal glands, are a pair of glands occurring on the top of kidneys and produce different steroid hormones.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Adrenal glands consist of two distinct structures; the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla, both of which are different in structure as well as functions.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Adrenal glands have been a topic of interest in biology over the years due to their heterogeneous structure, complex neural connections, multiple physiological functions, and the number of hormones produced.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">It is an endocrine gland and thus releases its hormones into the bloodstream, which then transports them to their target cells or organs.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal gland is defined by its two parts and their embryological, functional, and structural differences. The adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla are so different that it has been suggested that these should be considered different glands.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal gland secretes metabolically important hormones like mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, as well as steroid hormones like androgens.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hormones of the adrenal gland are important for metabolism as well as reproduction, and the normal functioning of the body.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The embryonic origin of the two parts of the adrenal gland is different. The adrenal cortex arises from the embryonic mesoderm, whereas the adrenal medulla arises from the nervous tissue of the embryo.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal cortex is essential for life, whereas the adrenal medulla is not essential for survival.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_65 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title \" >Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#structure-of-adrenal-gland\" title=\"Structure of Adrenal Gland\">Structure of Adrenal Gland<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#adrenal-cortex\" title=\"Adrenal Cortex\">Adrenal Cortex<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#adrenal-medulla\" title=\"Adrenal Medulla\">Adrenal Medulla<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#hormones-of-adrenal-gland\" title=\"Hormones of Adrenal Gland\">Hormones of Adrenal Gland<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#hormones-of-the-adrenal-cortex\" title=\"Hormones of the adrenal cortex\">Hormones of the adrenal cortex<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#adrenal-gland-and-hormones-video-lecture-by-dr-frank-oneill\" title=\"Adrenal Gland and Hormones Video Lecture by Dr. Frank O\u2019Neill\">Adrenal Gland and Hormones Video Lecture by Dr. Frank O\u2019Neill<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#hormones-produced-by-the-adrenal-medulla\" title=\"Hormones produced by the adrenal medulla\">Hormones produced by the adrenal medulla<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#functions-of-adrenal-gland\" title=\"Functions of Adrenal Gland\">Functions of Adrenal Gland<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#diseases-and-disorders-of-adrenal-gland\" title=\"Diseases and Disorders of Adrenal Gland\">Diseases and Disorders of Adrenal Gland<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#cushings-syndrome\" title=\"Cushing\u2019s syndrome\">Cushing\u2019s syndrome<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#adrenal-hypoplasia\" title=\"Adrenal Hypoplasia\">Adrenal Hypoplasia<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#addisons-disease\" title=\"Addison\u2019s Disease\">Addison\u2019s Disease<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#adrenocortical-adenomas\" title=\"Adrenocortical adenomas\">Adrenocortical adenomas<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/#references\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"structure-of-adrenal-gland\"><\/span><b>Structure of Adrenal Gland<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are two adrenal glands that occur atop each kidney which is why these are also called suprarenal glands. <\/span>The glands are pyramid-shaped, but the exact shape might differ in different people with age and their physiological condition. The glands are enclosed in a fibrous capsule and a cushion of fat that serves to protect the gland from internal shocks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone size-full wp-image-34839\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"750\" height=\"393\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Adrenal-Gland-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Adrenal Gland\" class=\"wp-image-34839\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Adrenal-Gland-1.jpeg 750w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Adrenal-Gland-1-300x157.jpeg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 750px) 100vw, 750px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Adrenal Gland. Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"adrenal-cortex\"><\/span><b>Adrenal Cortex<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal cortex is the more important part of the adrenal gland that is composed of glandular epithelium.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">It consists of three distinct zones; zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculate and zona reticularis.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The zona glomerulosa is the outermost zone that is composed of a thin layer of columnar cells arranged in an arched pattern. Zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex produces the hormone aldosterone.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Zona fasciculata is the middle and thickest zone of the cortex. It is composed of columns of secretory cells surrounded by multiple capillaries. This zone produces glucocorticoids.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The zona reticularis is the innermost layer composed of polyhedral cells arranged in linear or round nests or clumps. The region mostly produces glucocorticoids, but some species might produce the sex steroids called androgens.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"adrenal-medulla\"><\/span><b>Adrenal Medulla<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal medulla is present completely surrounded by the adrenal cortex and accounts for a small portion of the adrenal gland.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal medulla, unlike the adrenal cortex, is composed of neural tissues in the embryo and is considered a part of the sympathetic nervous system.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal medulla consists of the medullar chromaffin cells that are present within blood-filled capillaries and sinusoids.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The medullary chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons that synthesize catecholamines like epinephrine or adrenaline and norepinephrine.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"hormones-of-adrenal-gland\"><\/span><b>Hormones of Adrenal Gland<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hormones produced by the adrenal gland can be classified into different groups depending on whether they are synthesized by the adrenal medulla or adrenal cortex.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"hormones-of-the-adrenal-cortex\"><\/span><b>Hormones of the adrenal cortex<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal cortex releases three groups of steroid hormones, each of which are secreted by different regions within the adrenal cortex.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><b>Mineralocorticoids<\/b><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mineralocorticoids are a group of steroid hormones secreted by the cells of the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mineralocorticoids function to regulate the concentrations of mineral salts (like Na<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and K<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">) in the extracellular fluids.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The balance in the level of these cations is essential as the change in concentration can bring changes in blood volume and blood pressure.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The regulation of Na<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and K<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> in the body is performed mostly by the mineralocorticoid, aldosterone.&nbsp;<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Aldosterone is the most important mineralocorticoid, accounting for about 95% of all the mineralocorticoids produced.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Aldosterone stimulates the distal tubules of the nephrons in the kidney to reabsorb Na<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and water and increase the elimination of K<\/span><sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">+<\/span><\/sup><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> into the urine.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The regulatory effects of aldosterone last for about 20 minutes which allows the control of the plasma electrolyte balance.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><b>Glucocorticoids<\/b><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Glucocorticoids are essential to life as these influence the energy metabolism in the body.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The primary function of glucocorticoids is to maintain blood glucose and blood pressure by influencing the activity of vasoconstrictors.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Glucocorticoids include three steroid hormones; cortisol, cortisone, and corticosterone, out of which only the cortisol is secreted in significant amounts in humans.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The cortisol works by modifying the gene activity on the target cells, and the levels of cortisol produced in the body occur in a definite pattern.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The secretion of glucocorticoids is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism with the help of ACTH produced by the <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/pituitary-gland\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">pituitary gland<\/a>. ACTH released by the anterior pituitary is stimulated by the hypothalamic corticotrophin-releasing hormone.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The prime metabolic effect of cortisol is to induce gluconeogenesis in order to limit the use of glucose and mobilize other biomolecules like fatty acids and proteins for energy.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><b>Gonadocorticoids\/Androgens\/Sex Hormones<\/b><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The gonadocorticoids or androgens produced by the adrenal cortex are weak sex hormones and are converted into potent sex hormones.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Gonadocorticoids include hormones like androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone, which are secreted in amounts that are insignificant as compared to those secreted by gonads after puberty.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Even though the exact function of these androgens is not yet known, they have been associated with axillary and pubic hair development in both males and females.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The sex hormones in females are responsible for sex drive and account for most of the estrogen produced in the body after menopause.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"adrenal-gland-and-hormones-video-lecture-by-dr-frank-oneill\"><\/span><b>Adrenal Gland and Hormones Video Lecture by Dr. Frank O\u2019Neill<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"Adrenal Gland Hormones:  Anatomy and Physiology\" width=\"1200\" height=\"675\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/mVzFPXikvWY?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe>\n<\/div><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"hormones-produced-by-the-adrenal-medulla\"><\/span><b>Hormones produced by the adrenal medulla<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><b>Epinephrine and Norepinephrine<\/b><\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The adrenal medulla produces two hormones in response to stress; epinephrine and norepinephrine.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&nbsp;The amount of these two hormones produced by the adrenal medulla is in the ratio of 4:1 in terms of epinephrine to norepinephrine.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Epinephrine is more potent in stimulating metabolic activities in the body in the form of bronchial dilation and increased blood flow to the skeletal muscles.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Norepinephrine, in turn, influences peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hormones of the adrenal medulla usually produce a brief response to stressors that are short-lived.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"functions-of-adrenal-gland\"><\/span><b>Functions of Adrenal Gland<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The functions of the adrenal gland depend on the hormone produced by the gland. The following are some of the functions of the adrenal gland;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mineralocorticoids are involved in the regulation of sodium and potassium ions present in the blood and other extracellular fluids.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cortisol produced by the adrenal cortex functions to regulate metabolism, the immune system, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/cardiovascular-system\/\">cardiovascular system<\/a>.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hormones of the adrenal gland work to enable the body to adapt to increased stress conditions.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The androgens produced by the adrenal gland are converted to sex hormones that are essential for the development of the reproductive system.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hormones of the adrenal medulla like catecholamines, epinephrine, and norepinephrine are involved in performing the fight or flight response.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"diseases-and-disorders-of-adrenal-gland\"><\/span><b>Diseases and Disorders of Adrenal Gland<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The following are the diseases and disorders associated with the adrenal gland;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"cushings-syndrome\"><\/span><b>Cushing\u2019s syndrome<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cushing\u2019s syndrome is a condition caused due to the hypersecretion of cortical, which is the primary glucocorticoid hormone of the adrenal cortex.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hypersecretion can occur due to the formation of adrenal tumors or the hypersecretion of the ACTH by the pituitary.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The condition is characterized by adiposity of the face, neck, and abdomen followed by extensive tissue protein breakdown.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Osteoporosis and increased gluconeogenesis can occur, resulting in hyperglycemia and glycosuria.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"adrenal-hypoplasia\"><\/span><b>Adrenal Hypoplasia<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Adrenal hypoplasia is a condition resulting from the underdevelopment of the adrenal cortex due to various clinical conditions.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hypoplasia of the adrenal cortex can either be primary or secondary. Primary hypoplasia results in hyposecretion of adrenal hormones and underdevelopment of the adrenal gland.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Secondary hypoplasia is less common and less severe that only affects the secretions of the gland.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"addisons-disease\"><\/span><b>Addison\u2019s Disease<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Addison\u2019s disease is a disorder caused due to the destruction of the adrenal gland due to the hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The disease can occur due to the formation of autoantibodies by the immune system against the cortical cells.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some common symptoms of this condition are muscle weakness, tiredness, hypoglycemia, and increased skin pigmentation.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"adrenocortical-adenomas\"><\/span><b>Adrenocortical adenomas<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cortisol-producing adenomas result due to high levels of cAMP or protein kinase A in the body.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These adenomas are usually benign, but in some cases, these can produce different hormones of the gland, resulting in hypersecretion.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The formation of adrenal adenomas is stimulated by the binding of ACTH to receptors which induce the release of protein kinase A. Protein kinase A is a pathway for the formation of cortical cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"references\"><\/span><b>References<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hall JE and Guyton AC. (2011) Textbook of Medical Physiology. Twelfth Edition. Elsevier Saunders.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Waugh A and Grant A. (2004) Anatomy and Physiology. Ninth Edition. Churchill Livingstone.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Marieb EN and Hoehn K. (2013) Human Anatomy and Physiology. Ninth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.&nbsp;<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Rastogi SC. (2007) Essentials of Human Physiology. Fourth Edition. New Age International Limited.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dutt M, Wehrle CJ, Jialal I. Physiology, Adrenal Gland. [Updated 2020 May 29]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-.&nbsp;Available from: <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK537260\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK537260\/<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Nussey S, Whitehead S. Endocrinology: An Integrated Approach. Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers; 2001. Chapter 4, The adrenal gland.&nbsp;Available from: <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK26\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK26\/<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Willenberg HS, Bornstein SR. Adrenal Cortex; Development, Anatomy, Physiology. [Updated 2017 Jan 15]. In: Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, et al., editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000-.&nbsp;Available from: <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK278945\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK278945\/<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Iacobellis, Gianluca et al. \u201cDisease of adrenal glands.\u201d&nbsp;<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">International journal of endocrinology<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&nbsp;vol. 2015 (2015): 403521. doi:10.1155\/2015\/403521<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Rosol TJ, Yarrington JT, Latendresse J, Capen CC. Adrenal gland: structure, function, and mechanisms of toxicity. Toxicol Pathol. 2001 Jan-Feb;29(1):41-8. doi: 10.1080\/019262301301418847. PMID: 11215683.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Lotfi, Claudimara Ferini Pacicco et al. \u201cThe human adrenal cortex: growth control and disorders.\u201d&nbsp;<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Clinics (Sao Paulo, Brazil)<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> vol. 73,suppl 1 e473s. 6 Sep. 2018, doi:10.6061\/clinics\/2018\/e473s.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The adrenal glands, also called suprarenal glands, are a pair of glands occurring on the top of kidneys and produce different steroid hormones. Structure of Adrenal Gland There are two &#8230; <a title=\"Adrenal Gland- Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/adrenal-gland\/\" aria-label=\"Read more about Adrenal Gland- Structure, Hormones, Functions, Disorders\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":11,"featured_media":34839,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[6190],"tags":[5944,5630,5633],"custom":{"td_video":"","featured_image":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Adrenal-Gland-1.jpeg","author":{"name":"Anupama Sapkota","avatar":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/0e9c86afc1670c49efeb260138ec905b?s=96&d=mm&r=g"},"categories":[{"term_id":6190,"name":"Human Anatomy and Physiology","slug":"anatomy-and-physiology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":6190,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Human anatomy is the science that deals with the physical morphology and structure of the human body.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nHuman anatomy is further divided into two groups; gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy involves study related to anatomical structures that can be seen with unaided eyes, while microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures, histology, and cytology.\r\nHumans belong to the Subphylum Vertebrate of the Phylum Chordata as they have the characteristic internal skeleton with a backbone of vertebrae.\r\nOther typical mammalian structures in humans include hair, mammary glands, and highly developed sense organs.\r\nBesides, among mammals, humans have a predominantly two-legged (bipedal) posture, along with a highly developed intellectual.\r\nThe chemical composition of the human body is composed of water and organic compounds like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.\r\nThe human body is composed of specialized systems for different purposes; the digestive system for digestion, the respiratory system for respiration, the reproductive system for reproduction, and the skeletal and muscular system for movement.\r\nCells are the fundamental units of the human body consisting of trillions of cells in the body. The cells together form tissues.\r\nFour basic types of tissues are found in humans, each of which is specialized for a particular purpose; epithelial tissue for covering the body, muscular tissue for movement, nerve tissues for signaling, and connective tissue for transport of nutrients.\r\nThe following organization of the human body is organs. An organ is composed of a group of specialized tissues from a structural and functional unit.\r\nOrgans are followed by the system as the final organization of the human body. The body includes nine major organ systems, each composed of various organs and tissues that work together as a functional unit.\r\nInformation on human anatomy is essential during the analysis of signs of symptoms of different diseases and disease diagnoses.\r\nIt also allows an understanding of the relationship between different organ systems and the changes occurring in the body's anatomy during growth.\r\n\r\n<strong>Human physiology is a branch of natural science that deals with the functioning of the human body.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nIt includes various physiological activities like digestion, respiration, spermatogenesis, oogenesis, and excretion, all of which occur in a coordinated way between various organs and systems.\r\nPhysiology includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functioning of a healthy human body.\r\nA normal human body works as a result of the regulated system of networking between different systems. These interactions work towards maintaining homeostasis.\r\nThe concept of homeostasis is important in human physiology as it explains that the internal environment of an organism moves in a direction to maintain an equilibrium.\r\nIn the human body, homeostasis is maintained at the system level with each system trying to maintain its homeostasis.\r\nHuman physiology, like human anatomy, describes the mechanisms from the molecular to the cellular level, integrating the working of the entire body.\r\nBased on the information obtained via studies done on human physiology, it is understood that the cells, tissues, organs, and systems together work to maintain a healthy human body.\r\nBesides, certain compounds or chemicals produced in the body like enzymes and hormones also aid in the process of human physiology.\r\nA slight change in the working of a single organ in the body might affect the working of the entire body overall.\r\nHuman physiology is closely related to human anatomy where the anatomy of an organ or tissue plays a significant role in the physiology of the said organ or tissue.\r\nHuman physiology is also interrelated with clinical medicine and microbiology where different microorganisms found within the body aid in different processes like bacteria in the gut producing acid and other enzymes that aid in digestion.\r\nDuring the life cycle of humans, the body undergoes multiple changes which are influenced by changes in anatomy and changes in environmental factors.\u00a0 The physiology of the body thus adapts to such changes to maintain homeostasis.","parent":0,"count":74,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":6190,"category_count":74,"category_description":"<strong>Human anatomy is the science that deals with the physical morphology and structure of the human body.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nHuman anatomy is further divided into two groups; gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy involves study related to anatomical structures that can be seen with unaided eyes, while microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures, histology, and cytology.\r\nHumans belong to the Subphylum Vertebrate of the Phylum Chordata as they have the characteristic internal skeleton with a backbone of vertebrae.\r\nOther typical mammalian structures in humans include hair, mammary glands, and highly developed sense organs.\r\nBesides, among mammals, humans have a predominantly two-legged (bipedal) posture, along with a highly developed intellectual.\r\nThe chemical composition of the human body is composed of water and organic compounds like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.\r\nThe human body is composed of specialized systems for different purposes; the digestive system for digestion, the respiratory system for respiration, the reproductive system for reproduction, and the skeletal and muscular system for movement.\r\nCells are the fundamental units of the human body consisting of trillions of cells in the body. The cells together form tissues.\r\nFour basic types of tissues are found in humans, each of which is specialized for a particular purpose; epithelial tissue for covering the body, muscular tissue for movement, nerve tissues for signaling, and connective tissue for transport of nutrients.\r\nThe following organization of the human body is organs. An organ is composed of a group of specialized tissues from a structural and functional unit.\r\nOrgans are followed by the system as the final organization of the human body. The body includes nine major organ systems, each composed of various organs and tissues that work together as a functional unit.\r\nInformation on human anatomy is essential during the analysis of signs of symptoms of different diseases and disease diagnoses.\r\nIt also allows an understanding of the relationship between different organ systems and the changes occurring in the body's anatomy during growth.\r\n\r\n<strong>Human physiology is a branch of natural science that deals with the functioning of the human body.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nIt includes various physiological activities like digestion, respiration, spermatogenesis, oogenesis, and excretion, all of which occur in a coordinated way between various organs and systems.\r\nPhysiology includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functioning of a healthy human body.\r\nA normal human body works as a result of the regulated system of networking between different systems. These interactions work towards maintaining homeostasis.\r\nThe concept of homeostasis is important in human physiology as it explains that the internal environment of an organism moves in a direction to maintain an equilibrium.\r\nIn the human body, homeostasis is maintained at the system level with each system trying to maintain its homeostasis.\r\nHuman physiology, like human anatomy, describes the mechanisms from the molecular to the cellular level, integrating the working of the entire body.\r\nBased on the information obtained via studies done on human physiology, it is understood that the cells, tissues, organs, and systems together work to maintain a healthy human body.\r\nBesides, certain compounds or chemicals produced in the body like enzymes and hormones also aid in the process of human physiology.\r\nA slight change in the working of a single organ in the body might affect the working of the entire body overall.\r\nHuman physiology is closely related to human anatomy where the anatomy of an organ or tissue plays a significant role in the physiology of the said organ or tissue.\r\nHuman physiology is also interrelated with clinical medicine and microbiology where different microorganisms found within the body aid in different processes like bacteria in the gut producing acid and other enzymes that aid in digestion.\r\nDuring the life cycle of humans, the body undergoes multiple changes which are influenced by changes in anatomy and changes in environmental factors.\u00a0 The physiology of the body thus adapts to such changes to maintain homeostasis.","cat_name":"Human Anatomy and Physiology","category_nicename":"anatomy-and-physiology","category_parent":0}]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/41399"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/11"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=41399"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/41399\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/34839"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=41399"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=41399"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=41399"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}