{"id":38078,"date":"2022-05-10T13:14:00","date_gmt":"2022-05-10T07:29:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/?p=38078"},"modified":"2022-05-11T01:30:32","modified_gmt":"2022-05-10T19:45:32","slug":"foodborne-viruses","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/","title":{"rendered":"Foodborne Viruses- Food Poisoning by Viruses"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<ul><li>Human enteric viruses are the major cause of nonbacterial gastroenteritis also known as stomach flu and are transmitted via food and waterborne route.<\/li><li>Foodborne viruses include the human noroviruses (HNoV), hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis E virus (HEV), rotavirus (RV), Aichi virus (AiV), astroviruses, sapoviruses, adenoviruses, coxsackievirus, parvovirus, and picornavirus.<\/li><li>These viruses are categorized into three types according to the disease caused by them: gastroenteritis causing viruses, fecal-orally transmitted hepatitis viruses, and illness-causing viruses.<\/li><li>Astrovirus, rotavirus, the enteric adenovirus, and the enteric caliciviruses cause acute gastroenteritis in humans.<\/li><li>Hepatitis viruses such as HAV and HEV are transmitted through the fecal-oral route and cause liver inflammation whereas enteroviruses cause other illnesses such as diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and fever.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1205\" height=\"631\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Foodborne-Viruses-Food-Poisoning-by-Viruses.jpeg\" alt=\"Foodborne Viruses- Food Poisoning by Viruses\" class=\"wp-image-38081\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Foodborne-Viruses-Food-Poisoning-by-Viruses.jpeg 1205w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Foodborne-Viruses-Food-Poisoning-by-Viruses-300x157.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Foodborne-Viruses-Food-Poisoning-by-Viruses-1024x536.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Foodborne-Viruses-Food-Poisoning-by-Viruses-768x402.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1205px) 100vw, 1205px\" \/><figcaption>Foodborne Viruses- Food Poisoning by Viruses<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>Viral outbreak and their associated illnesses have been a major problem globally affecting the health of exposed individuals and also affecting their economy for treatment.<\/li><li>Foodborne viruses are a major concern in the food industry although they are obligate parasites they can remain infective in food and water for over a month and even more.<\/li><li>They cannot proliferate in food during processing and storage but their low infectious dose can cause a risk to the consumer.<\/li><li>Most reported viral outbreaks are caused by infected food handlers and through the process from farm to fork which has not gone heating process.\u00a0<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_65 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title \" >Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#sources-of-contamination\" title=\"Sources of Contamination\">Sources of Contamination<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#human-noroviruses\" title=\"Human Noroviruses\">Human Noroviruses<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#hepatitis-a-virus\" title=\"Hepatitis A virus\">Hepatitis A virus<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#rotavirus\" title=\"Rotavirus\">Rotavirus<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#hepatitis-e-virus\" title=\"Hepatitis E virus\">Hepatitis E virus<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#epidemiology-of-foodborne-viruses\" title=\"Epidemiology of Foodborne viruses\">Epidemiology of Foodborne viruses<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#clinical-manifestation-during-viral-infection\" title=\"Clinical manifestation during viral infection\">Clinical manifestation during viral infection<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#detection-methods-of-foodborne-viruses\" title=\"Detection Methods of Foodborne viruses\">Detection Methods of Foodborne viruses<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/#references\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"sources-of-contamination\"><\/span><strong>Sources of Contamination<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>The main source of contamination is through the food and water route mainly by the infected food handlers during food preparation.<\/li><li>The processing and preparation of animal products harboring a zoonotic virus is the major reservoir for the contamination of consumers.<\/li><li>Vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks are responsible for transferring arthropod-borne viruses.<\/li><li>Other transmission ways are droplets from an infected person while coughing and sneezing, sexual intercourse, and contaminated fecal samples.<\/li><li>Most common is the fecal-oral route transmission where only a few viral particles can cause illness in humans.<\/li><li>Viruses do not cause spoilage of food as they cannot replicate in processed food therefore, there is a passive transfer of viruses to consumers.<\/li><li>Use of fecally contaminated irrigation water for food preparation especially raw products such as salads, fruits, vegetables, and ready-to-eat food products.<\/li><li>Poor hygiene during processing and handling and direct consumption of undercooked infected food products are also possible sources of contamination.\u00a0<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p style=\"font-size:30px\"><strong>Foodborne viruses Examples<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"human-noroviruses\"><\/span><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/norwalk-virus-norovirus\/\">Human Noroviruses<\/a><\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>Noroviruses are +ve sense single-stranded RNA viruses of 23 \u2013 40 nm diameter and 7.5 kb genome size.<\/li><li>HNoVs include five major genera: Norovirus, Sapovirus, Vesivirus, Lagovirus, and Nebovirus.<\/li><li>NoV has six genogroups (GI to GVI) in which GI, GII, and GIV genogroups are human pathogens responsible for causing illnesses.<\/li><li>Their genome consists of nonstructural proteins such as ORF1, VP1 capsid protein (ORF2), and a phosphorylated VP2 protein (ORF3).<\/li><li>The majority of food-borne illnesses are caused by norovirus with self-limiting symptoms but their emerging virulent strains may cause death in an elderly and immunocompromised patient.<\/li><li>After the consumption of HNoV contaminated food, it reaches the human intestine and binds to the histoblood group antigens.<\/li><li>Replication occurs at the upper intestinal tract and symptoms start appearing within 24 to 48 hours and last up to a week.<\/li><li>Mild gastrointestinal problems such as nausea, headache, abdominal pain and vomiting are observed.<\/li><li>These viruses can survive at low pH (2 \u2013 4) and can remain in the environment and food for a long time.<\/li><li>Maintaining good hygienic practices by food handlers can prevent the transmission rate as there is no vaccine and antiviral treatment available against this infection.<\/li><li>Oral and intravenous fluid therapy is recommended in case of gastroenteritis and dehydration.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"hepatitis-a-virus\"><\/span><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/hepatitis-a-virus\/\">Hepatitis A virus<\/a><\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>Hepatitis A viruses are also +ve sense single-stranded RNA virus similar to the size of human norovirus but contain only a single ORF serotype.<\/li><li>The genome contains 3 structural capsid proteins VP1, VP2 and VP3 in the p1 region whereas RNA replication occurs in P2 and P3 regions.<\/li><li>The incubation period of HAV is approximately 28 days long with severe symptoms of jaundice, dark urine, vomiting, fever and loss of appetite.<\/li><li>HAV can resist very low pH up to 1.0 therefore it has high infectivity in the environment and can survive in harsh conditions as well.<\/li><li>The pathogenic mechanism is similar to all the viruses occurring in the upper gastrointestinal tract of the human intestine.<\/li><li>Vaccination is available which provides lifetime immunity but a majority of HAV infection resolves on their own.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p style=\"font-size:30px\"><strong>Other viruses<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"rotavirus\"><\/span><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/rota-virus\/\">Rotavirus<\/a><\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>Rotavirus causes infantile diarrhea in children under 5 years of age mostly in developing nations.<\/li><li>Symptoms are mild and less severe like fever, abdominal pain, watery diarrhea and vomiting but last only a week.<\/li><li>Dehydration is the main cause of death in young children as the infection is severe in the initial stage but later immunity develops.<\/li><li>Rotavirus vaccine is recommended by the WHO but tends to be less effective because of strain diversity and resistivity.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"hepatitis-e-virus\"><\/span><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/hepatitis-e-virus\/\">Hepatitis E virus<\/a><\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>HEV is a small 32-34 sized single-stranded +ve sense RNA virus containing three ORFs (ORF1, ORF2, and ORF3) genomes.<\/li><li>The ORF1 genome forms helicase, protease, and RNA polymerase similarly, ORF2 codes for capsid protein and ORF3 encodes for replication.<\/li><li>Genotypes 1 and 2 of HEV are responsible for causing disease in humans while others affect swine animals.<\/li><li>The incubation period is 2 to 10 weeks long with two different phases of illness.<\/li><li>The first is the preicteric phase developing symptoms like fever, vomiting, anorexia, and abdominal pain which is usually mild and the icteric phase develops severe illnesses like jaundice.<\/li><li>Illnesses are self-limiting as there is no specific treatment if the infection is severe, PEGylated interferon administration is recommended.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"epidemiology-of-foodborne-viruses\"><\/span><strong>Epidemiology of <strong>Foodborne viruses<\/strong><\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>Human norovirus (hNoVs) is the major cause of nonbacterial viral outbreaks occurring worldwide all year round being the peak in the winter.<\/li><li>About 31 viral pathogens are reported of causing 9.4 million foodborne illnesses in the United States according to Centres for Disease Control and Prevention.<\/li><li>Human norovirus is responsible for 58% of foodborne illnesses and an 11% fatality rate.<\/li><li>The first human norovirus outbreak was reported in an elementary school in 1968, Ohio where 50% of students and teachers suffered from a gastrointestinal illness.<\/li><li>The emerging virulent strains are reported of causing death in older people and immunocompromised individuals.<\/li><li>The cases are higher in children but young adults are at risk of suffering from illness as asymptomatic infections are common.<\/li><li>Nursing homes and hospitals are the major places of a gastroenteritis outbreaks from the consumption of norovirus contaminated food.<\/li><li>Norovirus infections are widely spread but Hepatitis A virus infection is endemic and is transmitted directly from person to person.\u00a0\u00a0<\/li><li>HAV outbreak in China led to 250,000 cases of infection in 1988 from the consumption of contaminated clams by the local people.<\/li><li>The incubation period of HAV is long and problematic but outbreaks and infections are rare because of today&#8217;s increased living standards and hygienic practices.<\/li><li>Rotavirus infection is also linked globally in terms of outbreak cases mainly in developing countries where such as India, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Ethiopia where the place is unhygienic and lacks proper drinking water.<\/li><li>Around 450,000 cases are reported every year and about 22% of death cases occur mainly in India which is due to contaminated water.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"clinical-manifestation-during-viral-infection\"><\/span><strong>Clinical manifestation during viral infection<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>Very minimum concentration of virus particles can cause infection to humans and the major cause of transmission is shedding the particles 10 to 14 days before the appearance of symptoms.\u00a0<\/li><li>Infections are usually asymptomatic in the initial days but later gastroenteritis problems like nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, and abdominal pain are developed.<\/li><li>Viral illness is self-limiting within a few days to a week but severe illness may occur in elderly people having cardiovascular and renal disease.\u00a0<\/li><li>In the case of HAV infection, moderate clinical symptoms like fever, malaise, anorexia, nausea, abdominal pain, discomfort, dark urine, and jaundice are observed.<\/li><li>The incubation period of HAV is longer from 15 to 50 days and does not last longer than 8 weeks but in some cases, the infected patient may show symptoms for up to 6 months.<\/li><li>Chronic infection is not reported but patients with chronic liver disease may develop fulminant hepatitis.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"detection-methods-of-foodborne-viruses\"><\/span><strong>Detection Methods of <strong>Foodborne viruses<\/strong><\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"513\" height=\"443\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Detection-Methods-of-Foodborne-viruses.jpg\" alt=\"Detection Methods of Foodborne viruses\" class=\"wp-image-38084\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Detection-Methods-of-Foodborne-viruses.jpg 513w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Detection-Methods-of-Foodborne-viruses-300x259.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 513px) 100vw, 513px\" \/><figcaption>Detection Methods of Foodborne viruses. Image Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214799316300546\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Albert Bosch et al. 2016<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul><li>Foodborne viruses are detected using bioassays to determine their cytopathic effect but are not applicable to human norovirus and HAV.<\/li><li>Gastroenteritis infections are diagnosed using the stool sample under an electron microscope which is still the gold standard for virus detection.<\/li><li>Immunological assays such as ELISA and immunoelectron microscopy are used nowadays using antibodies against the known genotypes of the viruses.\u00a0<\/li><li>Molecular-based detection methods are currently used as it gives valid result though the process is not simple and requires skilled manpower.<\/li><li>Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) is used for the detection of human enteric viruses from food and environmental samples.<\/li><li>But the main disadvantage of this method is that it fails to provide specific infectious and non-infectious viral particles which gives a false-positive result.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"references\"><\/span><strong>References<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol><li>O\u2019Shea, H., Blacklaws, B. A., Collins, P. J., McKillen, J., &amp; Fitzgerald, R. (2019).\u00a0<em>Viruses Associated With Foodborne Infections. Reference Module in Life Sciences.<\/em><\/li><li>D\u2019Souza, D. H. (2015).\u00a0<em>Update on foodborne viruses: types, concentration, and sampling methods. Advances in Microbial Food Safety, 102\u2013116.<\/em><\/li><li>Baert, L. (2013).\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/B9780857094308500125\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Foodborne virus inactivation by thermal and non-thermal processes<\/a>. Viruses in Food and Water, 237\u2013260.<\/em><\/li><li>Maunula, L., &amp; von Bonsdorff, C.-H. (2016).\u00a0<em>Foodborne viruses in ready-to-eat foods. Food Hygiene and Toxicology in Ready-to-Eat Foods, 51\u201368.<\/em><\/li><li>Hoorfar, J., Schultz, A. C., Lees, D. N., &amp; Bosch, A. (2011).\u00a0<em>Foodborne viruses: understanding the risks and developing rapid surveillance and control measures. Food Chain Integrity, 88\u2013104.<\/em><\/li><li>Koopmans, M., &amp; Duizer, E. (2004).\u00a0<em>Foodborne viruses: an emerging problem. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 90(1), 23\u201341.<\/em><\/li><li>D\u2019Souza, D. H., &amp; Joshi, S. S. (2016).\u00a0<em>Foodborne Viruses of Human Health Concern. Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 87\u201393.<\/em><\/li><li>Manuel, C., &amp; Jaykus, L.-A. (2014).\u00a0<em>VIRUSES | Foodborne Viruses. Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, 732\u2013737.<\/em><\/li><li>Koopmans, M., von Bonsdorff, C.-H., Vinj\u00e9, J., de Medici, D., &amp; Monroe, S. (2002).\u00a0<em>Foodborne viruses. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 26(2), 187\u2013205.<\/em><\/li><\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Human enteric viruses are the major cause of nonbacterial gastroenteritis also known as stomach flu and are transmitted via food and waterborne route. Foodborne viruses include the human noroviruses (HNoV), &#8230; <a title=\"Foodborne Viruses- Food Poisoning by Viruses\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/foodborne-viruses\/\" aria-label=\"Read more about Foodborne Viruses- Food Poisoning by Viruses\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":13,"featured_media":38081,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[3976,2],"tags":[4743,6108,207],"custom":{"td_video":"","featured_image":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Foodborne-Viruses-Food-Poisoning-by-Viruses.jpeg","author":{"name":"Sushmita Dura","avatar":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/90c03df0d1fcb9782300774feabac80b?s=96&d=mm&r=g"},"categories":[{"term_id":3976,"name":"Food Microbiology","slug":"food-microbiology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":3976,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Food microbiology is a branch of microbiology that studies a variety of microorganisms involved in the spoilage of food, manufacture of food, and transmission of diseases via food.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Food safety is an important part of food microbiology as food continues to act as a mode of transmission of various infectious agents.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Spoilage of food by microorganisms has become a problem for many people around the world as foods act as a nutrient source for microorganisms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Food microbiology focuses not only on the detection of food spoilage but also on the preservation of food against such microorganisms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Preservation techniques like radiation, dry and moist heat sterilization, filtration uses physical and chemical methods in food microbiology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Results from various studies have shown the opportunity of using microorganisms as a means for manufacturing different new foods.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The use of <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lactobacillus<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> in the production of curd, cheese, and butter is an important example of this.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Food microbiology is closely related to other disciplines like biotechnology and basic microbiology, which enables the use of genetic recombination for the manufacturing of high-protein containing food for ill and immune-compromised individuals.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The use of probiotics has increased all over the world as useful microorganisms can give instant energy and protein to the body. Other immune booster foods have also found a large market due to advancements in food microbiology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The application of food microbiology in agriculture has shown to increase harvest and prevention of plant diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Different microbiologically produced polymers like alginate have potential application in the manufacture of new forms of food.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The diagnosis of food-related diseases and detection of infectious agents in food samples interconnect areas like clinical medicine to food microbiology, increasing its scope.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pasteurization of milk is yet another example of food microbiology used since ancient times to prevent food-related diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","parent":0,"count":49,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":3976,"category_count":49,"category_description":"<strong>Food microbiology is a branch of microbiology that studies a variety of microorganisms involved in the spoilage of food, manufacture of food, and transmission of diseases via food.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Food safety is an important part of food microbiology as food continues to act as a mode of transmission of various infectious agents.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Spoilage of food by microorganisms has become a problem for many people around the world as foods act as a nutrient source for microorganisms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Food microbiology focuses not only on the detection of food spoilage but also on the preservation of food against such microorganisms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Preservation techniques like radiation, dry and moist heat sterilization, filtration uses physical and chemical methods in food microbiology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Results from various studies have shown the opportunity of using microorganisms as a means for manufacturing different new foods.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The use of <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lactobacillus<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> in the production of curd, cheese, and butter is an important example of this.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Food microbiology is closely related to other disciplines like biotechnology and basic microbiology, which enables the use of genetic recombination for the manufacturing of high-protein containing food for ill and immune-compromised individuals.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The use of probiotics has increased all over the world as useful microorganisms can give instant energy and protein to the body. Other immune booster foods have also found a large market due to advancements in food microbiology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The application of food microbiology in agriculture has shown to increase harvest and prevention of plant diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Different microbiologically produced polymers like alginate have potential application in the manufacture of new forms of food.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The diagnosis of food-related diseases and detection of infectious agents in food samples interconnect areas like clinical medicine to food microbiology, increasing its scope.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pasteurization of milk is yet another example of food microbiology used since ancient times to prevent food-related diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","cat_name":"Food Microbiology","category_nicename":"food-microbiology","category_parent":0},{"term_id":2,"name":"Virology","slug":"virology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":2,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Virology is a branch of natural science that deals with the biology of viruses and viral diseases, along with the biochemistry, occurrence, pathogenesis, life cycle, ecology, and evolution of viruses and virus-like particles.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Viruses and viral diseases have been at the focus of science, agriculture, and medicine for a long time, and some of the greatest challenges and triumphs in science have involved virology like the eradication of smallpox.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Virology is an important clinical science that deals with diseases of new emerging viruses and viral diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The importance of virology has been observed throughout time in the form of viral outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Virology is a reasonably difficult discipline due to the complex nature of viruses. Viruses are obligatory parasites that require living cells for growth which makes it difficult to culture them in laboratories.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Besides, these are minute particles that cannot be seen through a compound microscope. These are also comparatively more pathogenic, resulting in deadly diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">All of these difficulties has made extensive research on viruses and viral diseases quite challenging.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">However, modern science has made significant advancements in microscopy and other techniques that have made the observation and culture of viruses on artificial surfaces possible.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Much of the initial attention of virologists were focused on viruses as disease-causing agents, and great progress continues to be made in this area.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0Many acute viral infections are prevented or controlled in much of the world through vaccination and other public health measures.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It has also been <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">recognized that viral infections cause a substantial fraction of the world's cancer burden, most commonly hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus infections, both of which can be prevented by vaccination.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Viruses also cause severe diseases in plants and livestock, which include viruses like TMV.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Beyond their medical and agricultural importance, numerous studies done on viral replication have provided important information on the mechanism of viral diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Virology continues to focus on clinical science in order to discover the nature of viral gene products, their application as <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/vaccines-introduction-and-types\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">vaccines<\/a>, and as antimicrobial agents.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","parent":0,"count":50,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":2,"category_count":50,"category_description":"<strong>Virology is a branch of natural science that deals with the biology of viruses and viral diseases, along with the biochemistry, occurrence, pathogenesis, life cycle, ecology, and evolution of viruses and virus-like particles.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Viruses and viral diseases have been at the focus of science, agriculture, and medicine for a long time, and some of the greatest challenges and triumphs in science have involved virology like the eradication of smallpox.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Virology is an important clinical science that deals with diseases of new emerging viruses and viral diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The importance of virology has been observed throughout time in the form of viral outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Virology is a reasonably difficult discipline due to the complex nature of viruses. Viruses are obligatory parasites that require living cells for growth which makes it difficult to culture them in laboratories.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Besides, these are minute particles that cannot be seen through a compound microscope. These are also comparatively more pathogenic, resulting in deadly diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">All of these difficulties has made extensive research on viruses and viral diseases quite challenging.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">However, modern science has made significant advancements in microscopy and other techniques that have made the observation and culture of viruses on artificial surfaces possible.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Much of the initial attention of virologists were focused on viruses as disease-causing agents, and great progress continues to be made in this area.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u00a0Many acute viral infections are prevented or controlled in much of the world through vaccination and other public health measures.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It has also been <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">recognized that viral infections cause a substantial fraction of the world's cancer burden, most commonly hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus infections, both of which can be prevented by vaccination.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Viruses also cause severe diseases in plants and livestock, which include viruses like TMV.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Beyond their medical and agricultural importance, numerous studies done on viral replication have provided important information on the mechanism of viral diseases.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Virology continues to focus on clinical science in order to discover the nature of viral gene products, their application as <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/vaccines-introduction-and-types\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">vaccines<\/a>, and as antimicrobial agents.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","cat_name":"Virology","category_nicename":"virology","category_parent":0}]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/38078"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/13"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=38078"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/38078\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/38081"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=38078"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=38078"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=38078"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}