{"id":34498,"date":"2022-07-01T01:55:00","date_gmt":"2022-06-30T20:10:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/?p=34498"},"modified":"2022-09-25T01:36:17","modified_gmt":"2022-09-24T19:51:17","slug":"mast-cells","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/mast-cells\/","title":{"rendered":"Mast Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Mast cells are cells of the immune system of the hematopoietic lineage that remain widely distributed in vascularized tissues throughout the body.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells, unlike other immune cells, do not remain in the blood but remain localized in mucosal and <strong>epithelial tissues<\/strong> throughout the body.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These are among the first cells to interact with environmental antigens and invading pathogens or microorganisms. Mast cells are thus considered one of the first cells of the immune system that interact with external antigens.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells are primarily involved in the IgE-dependent responses, but these can also respond to a variety of other innate signals from pathogens, complement compounds, and other host cell types.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells are also known to express many costimulatory molecules with immunoregulatory activities that help regulate the immune responses in the body.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These are produced from the bone marrow and are released into the blood as undifferentiated cells. These cells then mature after they leave the blood and reach the specialized tissues.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the bone marrow, mast cells originate from CD34+\/CD117+ pluripotent progenitor cells, and the maturation of these cells depends on KIT activation.<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone size-full wp-image-34499\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"812\" height=\"427\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Mast-Cells.jpeg\" alt=\"Mast Cells\" class=\"wp-image-34499\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Mast-Cells.jpeg 812w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Mast-Cells-300x158.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Mast-Cells-768x404.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 812px) 100vw, 812px\" \/><figcaption>Mast Cells. Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_65 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title \" >Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/mast-cells\/#structure-of-mast-cells\" title=\"Structure of Mast Cells\">Structure of Mast Cells<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/mast-cells\/#how-do-mast-cells-work-against-pathogens-immunity\" title=\"How do Mast Cells work against pathogens? (Immunity)\">How do Mast Cells work against pathogens? (Immunity)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/mast-cells\/#types-of-mast-cells\" title=\"Types of Mast Cells\">Types of Mast Cells<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/mast-cells\/#functions-of-mast-cells\" title=\"Functions of Mast Cells\">Functions of Mast Cells<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/mast-cells\/#references\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"structure-of-mast-cells\"><\/span><b>Structure of Mast Cells<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells are mononuclear cells consisting of small secretory granules that range in size from 0.2 to 0.8 micrometers. In some cells, the granules are dense enough to obscure the appearance of the nucleus.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The cells are oval or irregularly shaped with a single central nucleus. Within the nucleus, densely packed peripheral chromatin can be observed.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Most of the cytoplasm is occupied by cytoplasmic granules but few secondary lysosomes. The cells also have small, finger-like projections from the cell membrane.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The granules store inflammatory mediators like histamine, herapin, cytokines, and proteases.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The plasma membrane of the mast cells has IgE receptors that bind to the F<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> region of circulation IgE antibodies in order to induce degranulation of these mast cells.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells share many features with basophils, but these can be distinguished based on their mononuclear morphology and monoclonal antibodies.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells exist in three distinct forms based on their structure; intact cells, spreading cells, and degranulated cells.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Intact cells are mostly found in blood vessels as well as in dermal tissues. The granules in these cells are closely packed together, which prevents the observation of other cellular organelles. The cells are usually spindle-shaped.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Spreading cells are cells that occur in the superficial connective tissue. The granules are fewer in number than in the intact cell type.&nbsp;<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Degranulated cells are not metachromatic and have clear cytoplasm with a prominent nucleus.<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"how-do-mast-cells-work-against-pathogens-immunity\"><\/span><b>How do Mast Cells work against pathogens? (Immunity)<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The most important mechanism of action of mast cells is the IgE-mediated allergic reactions through the F<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> receptor.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The IgE antibodies are produced by mature B cells in response to the activation by CD4+ Th2 cells. IgE is produced from IgM via class switching in response to the activation of B cells in the presence of IL-4.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The binding of IgE to the F<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> receptors on the mast cells results in the activation of mast cells, activating the release of granules from the mast cells.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The binding activates the LYN tyrosine kinase in the cells, which phosphorylates the tyrosine in the binding site to activate the motifs.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The LYN also activates Syk tyrosine kinase, which phosphorylates signaling proteins like LAT1 and LAT2.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Phosphorylated PLC\u03b3 hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate to form inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG).<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The IP3 and DAG act as second messengers, causing the mobilization of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum. The release of calcium from the ER causing the translocation of NF\u03baB to the nucleus of the cell.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The process is further followed by the release of cytokines like IL-6, TNF\u03b1, and IL-13. This then regulates the degranulation of mast cells.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cell desensitization is another essential mechanism that is used in response to allergies to drugs or food particles.<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone size-full wp-image-34500\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1575\" height=\"1146\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/IgE-Cross-linking-Induces-Mast-Cell-Activation-and-Degranulation.jpeg\" alt=\"IgE Cross-linking Induces Mast Cell Activation and Degranulation\" class=\"wp-image-34500\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/IgE-Cross-linking-Induces-Mast-Cell-Activation-and-Degranulation.jpeg 1575w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/IgE-Cross-linking-Induces-Mast-Cell-Activation-and-Degranulation-300x218.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/IgE-Cross-linking-Induces-Mast-Cell-Activation-and-Degranulation-1024x745.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/IgE-Cross-linking-Induces-Mast-Cell-Activation-and-Degranulation-768x559.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/IgE-Cross-linking-Induces-Mast-Cell-Activation-and-Degranulation-1536x1118.jpeg 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1575px) 100vw, 1575px\" \/><figcaption>IgE Cross-linking Induces Mast Cell Activation and Degranulation.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"types-of-mast-cells\"><\/span><b>Types of Mast Cells<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells in human beings can be differentiated into two types; mucosal and connective tissue mast cells.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The connective tissue mast cells are found primarily in the loose connective tissue and skin, but these can be found in other connective tissues as well.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The mucosal type mast cell is found in the gastrointestinal mucosa and peripheral airways.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The exact factor that causes the differentiation of mast cells into the two types is not yet completely known.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">However, both of these types of mast cells can be activated by allergens and other nonallergic signals. Both types also have the IgE receptors responsible for the activation of degranulation of the cells.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The difference between the two mast cells can be observed in their response to nonallergic signals, the mediators and their release, their proteoglycan constituents, and the makeup of the granular enzymes.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The distinction between the two types of cells can be made easily in the case of rodents as these stains differently differ in size and are found in different tissues.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The differentiation between the mast cells in humans can be made through the presence of chymase, a chymotryptic protease.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The protease is only present in connective tissue mast cells, but the enzyme tryptic protease or tryptase is found in all human mast cells.<\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"functions-of-mast-cells\"><\/span><b>Functions of Mast Cells<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The following are some of the functions of mast cells in the body;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells secrete different pro-angiogenic factors like VEGF, bFGF, TGF-beta, and IL-8. The cells also release proteases and heparin, which induce permeability of the microvasculature, inducing angiogenesis.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells are among the first line of defense against antigens entering the body. These cells are thus important for maintaining the homeostasis of the body, especially the gastrointestinal tract.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In innate immunity, receptors on mast cells bind to antigens, causing a release of inflammatory mediators like IL-4, TNF\u03b1, and IL-6.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These cells also help in providing immunity against viral antigens by the release of IFN-\u03b1 and IFN-\u03b2.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In adaptive immunity, mast cells process and present antigen via MHCI and MHCII, and these also activate <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/dendritic-cells\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>dendritic cells<\/strong><\/a>, which are professional antigen-presenting cells.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The most important and prominent function of mast cells is the release of newly synthesized mediators necessary for the immune response.<\/span><\/li><li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mast cells are also involved in an allergic reaction where the over-activation of mast cells can result in hyper-allergic reactions.<\/span><\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone size-full wp-image-34501\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1500\" height=\"1326\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Role-of-Mast-Cells-in-Autoimmune-Disease-Models.jpeg\" alt=\"Role of Mast Cells in Autoimmune Disease Models\" class=\"wp-image-34501\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Role-of-Mast-Cells-in-Autoimmune-Disease-Models.jpeg 1500w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Role-of-Mast-Cells-in-Autoimmune-Disease-Models-300x265.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Role-of-Mast-Cells-in-Autoimmune-Disease-Models-1024x905.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Role-of-Mast-Cells-in-Autoimmune-Disease-Models-768x679.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1500px) 100vw, 1500px\" \/><figcaption>Role of Mast Cells in Autoimmune Disease Models.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"references\"><\/span><b>References<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol><li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Peter J. Delves, Seamus J. Martin, Dennis R. Burton, and Ivan M. Roitt(2017). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Roitt\u2019s Essential Immunology<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, Thirteenth Edition. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.<\/span><\/li><li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Judith A. Owen, Jenni Punt, Sharon A. Stranford (2013). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kuby Immunology<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Seventh Edition. W. H. Freeman and Company.<\/span><\/li><li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Krystel-Whittemore, Melissa et al. \u201cMast Cell: A Multi-Functional Master Cell.\u201d\u00a0<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Frontiers in immunology<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0vol. 6 620. 6 Jan. 2016, doi:10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00620<\/span><\/li><li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Gilfillan, Alasdair M et al. \u201cMast cell biology: introduction and overview.\u201d\u00a0<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Advances in experimental medicine and biology<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0vol. 716 (2011): 2-12. doi:10.1007\/978-1-4419-9533-9_1<\/span><\/li><li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Shea-Donohue, Terez et al. \u201cMast cells.\u201d\u00a0<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Current gastroenterology reports<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0vol. 12,5 (2010): 349-57. doi:10.1007\/s11894-010-0132-1<\/span><\/li><li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Fong M, Crane JS. Histology, Mast Cells. [Updated 2020 Jun 30]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-.\u00a0Available from: <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK499904\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK499904\/<\/span><\/a><\/li><li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">da Silva, Elaine Zayas Marcelino et al. \u201cMast cell function: a new vision of an old cell.\u201d\u00a0<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The journal of histochemistry and cytochemistry : official journal of the Histochemistry Society<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0vol. 62,10 (2014): 698-738. doi:10.1369\/0022155414545334<\/span><\/li><li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tsai M, Grimbaldeston M, Galli SJ. MAST CELLS AND IMMUNOREGULATION\/IMMUNOMODULATION. In: Madame Curie Bioscience Database [Internet]. Austin (TX): Landes Bioscience; 2000-2013.\u00a0Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK45995\/<\/span><\/li><\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Mast cells are cells of the immune system of the hematopoietic lineage that remain widely distributed in vascularized tissues throughout the body. Mast cells, unlike other immune cells, do not &#8230; <a title=\"Mast Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/mast-cells\/\" aria-label=\"Read more about Mast Cells- Definition, Structure, Immunity, Types, Functions\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":11,"featured_media":34499,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1026,3177],"tags":[5933,1319],"custom":{"td_video":"","featured_image":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/Mast-Cells.jpeg","author":{"name":"Anupama Sapkota","avatar":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/0e9c86afc1670c49efeb260138ec905b?s=96&d=mm&r=g"},"categories":[{"term_id":1026,"name":"Immunology","slug":"immunology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":1026,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Immunology is an emerging branch of medical science that deals with studies related to different aspects of the immune system like the cells, structure, function, response against antigens, and disorders.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The immune system consists of a collection of cells, chemicals, processes, and mechanisms that function to protect the body from foreign antigens, such as microbes (organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites), viruses, cancer cells, and toxins.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Beyond, the structural and chemical barriers which protect us from infection, the immune system consists of two lines of defense; innate immunity and adaptive immunity.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The innate immunity represents the first line of defense against the antigen, and it is an antigen-independent defense mechanism used by the host immediately or within hours of encountering an antigen.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">On the other hand, adaptive immunity is antigen-dependent and antigen-specific and, therefore, includes a lag time between exposure to the antigen and maximal response.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Studies conducted in immunology are related to the measurement of physiological functioning of the immune system in both healthy and disease conditions, malfunctioning of the system in the case of disorders, and physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the cells of the immune system.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Immunology is fast becoming an important branch of clinical medicine as it has a close relationship with organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, and even dermatology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Immunology is focused on certain organs of the body like the bone marrow and the lymphatic system and the white blood cells found in the blood.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These cells or organs producing these cells are responsible, directly or indirectly, for the defense mechanism of the body against a pathogenic agent or other antigens.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These cells keep on circulating throughout the body via blood or lymph so that they can detect antigens entering the body from different sources.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">An important aspect of immunology is immunotherapy, where components of the immune system or antigens are used to treat a disease or disorder as a form of treatment.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","parent":0,"count":115,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":1026,"category_count":115,"category_description":"<strong>Immunology is an emerging branch of medical science that deals with studies related to different aspects of the immune system like the cells, structure, function, response against antigens, and disorders.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The immune system consists of a collection of cells, chemicals, processes, and mechanisms that function to protect the body from foreign antigens, such as microbes (organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites), viruses, cancer cells, and toxins.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Beyond, the structural and chemical barriers which protect us from infection, the immune system consists of two lines of defense; innate immunity and adaptive immunity.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The innate immunity represents the first line of defense against the antigen, and it is an antigen-independent defense mechanism used by the host immediately or within hours of encountering an antigen.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">On the other hand, adaptive immunity is antigen-dependent and antigen-specific and, therefore, includes a lag time between exposure to the antigen and maximal response.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Studies conducted in immunology are related to the measurement of physiological functioning of the immune system in both healthy and disease conditions, malfunctioning of the system in the case of disorders, and physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the cells of the immune system.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Immunology is fast becoming an important branch of clinical medicine as it has a close relationship with organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, and even dermatology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Immunology is focused on certain organs of the body like the bone marrow and the lymphatic system and the white blood cells found in the blood.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These cells or organs producing these cells are responsible, directly or indirectly, for the defense mechanism of the body against a pathogenic agent or other antigens.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These cells keep on circulating throughout the body via blood or lymph so that they can detect antigens entering the body from different sources.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">An important aspect of immunology is immunotherapy, where components of the immune system or antigens are used to treat a disease or disorder as a form of treatment.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","cat_name":"Immunology","category_nicename":"immunology","category_parent":0},{"term_id":3177,"name":"Cell Biology","slug":"cell-biology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":3177,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Cell biology or cytology is a branch of biology that deals with studies related to the structure and function of a cell-based on the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A detailed study of the cellular structure and function provides a basis for studies related to tissues, organs, and the body.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The number of cells in an organism might differ as some organisms have a single cell while others are made up of billions of cells.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">In the case of single-celled organisms, the singular cell is studied, whereas, for multicellular organisms, individual cells of different tissues are studied.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Initially, only the outer structure of a cell was studied due to the lack of complex microscopic processes.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Over the years, however, advancements in other areas have made it possible to study the internal cellular components of a cell.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Apart from the cell structure and function, cell biology also deals with cell communication and signaling.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology also involves the studying of the cell cycle and cell division, which provides insight into the cellular composition of an organism.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology is also linked with other studies like genetics, molecular biology, cytochemistry, and biochemistry.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cells are distinguished as prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells based on the complexity of the cell.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology enables studying the biochemical mechanisms involved in cell metabolism and different forms of cellular energy.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Focusing on the structural and functional aspects of a single cell allows a detailed understanding of the body overall.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is also easier to perform research on a single cell as it can be modified and observed efficiently.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Techniques in cell biology have advanced over the years with new and improved imaging techniques to observe smaller cellular organelles.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology, together with systemic biology, helps in the answering of complex questions like the relationship between cellular networks, the evolutionary relationship between genomes, and the complexity of the biomolecular composition of different living organisms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","parent":0,"count":107,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":3177,"category_count":107,"category_description":"<strong>Cell biology or cytology is a branch of biology that deals with studies related to the structure and function of a cell-based on the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A detailed study of the cellular structure and function provides a basis for studies related to tissues, organs, and the body.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The number of cells in an organism might differ as some organisms have a single cell while others are made up of billions of cells.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">In the case of single-celled organisms, the singular cell is studied, whereas, for multicellular organisms, individual cells of different tissues are studied.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Initially, only the outer structure of a cell was studied due to the lack of complex microscopic processes.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Over the years, however, advancements in other areas have made it possible to study the internal cellular components of a cell.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Apart from the cell structure and function, cell biology also deals with cell communication and signaling.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology also involves the studying of the cell cycle and cell division, which provides insight into the cellular composition of an organism.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology is also linked with other studies like genetics, molecular biology, cytochemistry, and biochemistry.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cells are distinguished as prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells based on the complexity of the cell.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology enables studying the biochemical mechanisms involved in cell metabolism and different forms of cellular energy.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Focusing on the structural and functional aspects of a single cell allows a detailed understanding of the body overall.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is also easier to perform research on a single cell as it can be modified and observed efficiently.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Techniques in cell biology have advanced over the years with new and improved imaging techniques to observe smaller cellular organelles.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology, together with systemic biology, helps in the answering of complex questions like the relationship between cellular networks, the evolutionary relationship between genomes, and the complexity of the biomolecular composition of different living organisms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","cat_name":"Cell Biology","category_nicename":"cell-biology","category_parent":0}]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/34498"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/11"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=34498"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/34498\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/34499"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=34498"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=34498"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=34498"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}