{"id":32565,"date":"2023-11-07T22:15:03","date_gmt":"2023-11-07T16:30:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/?p=32565"},"modified":"2023-11-10T13:46:40","modified_gmt":"2023-11-10T08:01:40","slug":"flagella","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/","title":{"rendered":"Flagella: Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>A flagellum or flagella is a lash or hair-like structure present on the cell body that is important for different physiological functions of the cell.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The term \u2018flagellum\u2019 is the Latin term for whip indicating the long slender structure of the flagellum that resembles a whip.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagella are characteristic of the members of the protozoan group Mastigophora, but also occur in different microscopic and macroscopic animals like bacteria, fungi, algae, and animals.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagella are primarily essential as an organelle of locomotion in different organisms besides helping in gathering food and circulation.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagella occurring in different living beings are different in structure, mechanism, movement, and even functions. A flagellum occurring in archaea is termed archaellum as it is quite different from the flagellum occurring in bacteria.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagella are similar in structure with other hair-like protrusions called cilia but differ in number, occurrence, movement, and sometimes, functions.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These appendages have been studied in different groups of animals for their functions of both movement and sensation as they can detect changes in the environmental composition and pH.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The most commonly studied flagellum is the flagellum occurring in <em>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii<\/em> as a result of its size.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Even though most flagella occur at the polar ends of the cells, their number and position differ as their composition and functions remain the same within a species.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone size-full wp-image-32574\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"900\" height=\"472\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagella.jpeg\" alt=\"Flagella\" class=\"wp-image-32574\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagella.jpeg 900w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagella-300x157.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagella-768x403.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 900px) 100vw, 900px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_65 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title \" >Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#structure-of-flagellum\" title=\"Structure of Flagellum\">Structure of Flagellum<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#1-filament\" title=\"1. Filament\">1. Filament<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#2-hook-or-anchoring-structures\" title=\"2. Hook or anchoring structures\">2. Hook or anchoring structures<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#3-basal-body-or-motor-device\" title=\"3. Basal body or motor device\">3. Basal body or motor device<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#flagella-formation-mechanism\" title=\"Flagella formation mechanism\">Flagella formation mechanism<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#1-formation-of-the-basal-body\" title=\"1. Formation of the basal body\">1. Formation of the basal body<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#2-formation-of-the-hook\" title=\"2. Formation of the hook\">2. Formation of the hook<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#3-filament-assembly\" title=\"3. Filament assembly\">3. Filament assembly<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#types-of-flagella\" title=\"Types of Flagella\">Types of Flagella<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#1-bacterial-flagella\" title=\"1. Bacterial flagella\">1. Bacterial flagella<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#2-archaeal-flagella\" title=\"2. Archaeal flagella\">2. Archaeal flagella<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#3-eukaryotic-flagella\" title=\"3. Eukaryotic flagella\">3. Eukaryotic flagella<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#bacterial-flagella-arrangement\" title=\"Bacterial flagella arrangement&nbsp;\">Bacterial flagella arrangement&nbsp;<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#1-monotrichous\" title=\"1. Monotrichous\">1. Monotrichous<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#2-lophotrichous\" title=\"2. Lophotrichous\">2. Lophotrichous<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#3-amphitrichous\" title=\"3. Amphitrichous\">3. Amphitrichous<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-17\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#4-peritrichous\" title=\"4. Peritrichous\">4. Peritrichous<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-18\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#functions-of-flagella\" title=\"Functions of Flagella\">Functions of Flagella<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-19\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#examples-of-flagella\" title=\"Examples of Flagella\">Examples of Flagella<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-20\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#1-flagella-in-helicobacter-pylori\" title=\"1. Flagella in Helicobacter pylori\">1. Flagella in Helicobacter pylori<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-21\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#2-flagellum-in-human-sperm-cell\" title=\"2. Flagellum in human sperm cell\">2. Flagellum in human sperm cell<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-22\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/#references\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"structure-of-flagellum\"><\/span><b>Structure of Flagellum<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The size structure and number of flagella are different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Even within prokaryotes, the bacterial flagellum is different from archaeal flagellum. <\/span>Similarly, the composition and mechanism of flagella formation are also different and diverse. However, the basic structure of a flagellum consists of some structures that are most common in all domains of life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The basic structure of a flagellum include the following structure;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"1-filament\"><\/span><b>1. Filament<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The filament is the most prominent part of a flagellum that represents about 98% of all the structures of a flagellum.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The filaments extend from the hook-like structure present within the cytoplasm of the cell with an average length of 18 nm. The length of the filament differs in different groups of living beings like the filaments of bacterial flagella is 20 nm while that of archaea is 10-14 nm.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Filaments can be observed outside the cell membrane specific flagellar staining methods. The movement of the filaments is controlled by the motor present in the cytoplasm.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Filaments are self-assembling macromolecular structures composed of hook proteins and flagellins, and the number of flagellin and hook protein subunits might differ in different cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"2-hook-or-anchoring-structures\"><\/span><b>2. Hook or anchoring structures<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The flagellar hook is a short and curved tubular structure that connects the basal body or the flagellar motor to the long filament.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The most important function of the hook is to transmit the motor torque to the helical filament so that it can move in a different orientation for different functions. Besides, it also plays an essential role in the assembly of the flagellum.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hook is composed of numerous hook protein subunits forming polymorphic supercoil structures.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This structure is present near the cell membrane in all types of cells, but the shape and exact composition of the structure might differ between cells.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1009\" height=\"732\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagellum-Structure.jpeg\" alt=\"Flagellum Structure\" class=\"wp-image-32569\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagellum-Structure.jpeg 1009w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagellum-Structure-300x218.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagellum-Structure-768x557.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1009px) 100vw, 1009px\" \/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"3-basal-body-or-motor-device\"><\/span><b>3. Basal body or motor device<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The basal body of a flagellum is the only structure of the flagellum that is present within the cell membrane. It is connected to the hook of the flagellum which then connects to the long filament.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The basal body is a rod-shaped structure with a system of rings of microtubules. The component of the basal body differs in different types of cells.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The rods present in the basal body act as a reversible motor that propels the filament in a different orientation for specific functions.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The basal body is also essential for the transfer of flagellar proteins from the cytoplasm to the hook and filament part of the flagellum during assembly.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"flagella-formation-mechanism\"><\/span><b>Flagella formation mechanism<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The process of flagella formation and assembly begins with the formation of the FliF ring complex in the basal body. The process occurs in the cytoplasmic membrane and proceeds both inwards and outwards. <\/span>Most of the studies related to the process of formation and assembly of the flagellum have been done on bacteria. As the flagellum comprises a complex membrane and structures composed of numerous proteins and their interactions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The overall process of flagella formation and assembly can be described as below;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"1-formation-of-the-basal-body\"><\/span><b>1. Formation of the basal body<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The process begins with the incorporation of FliF, which is an integral protein consisting of MS-ring into the cytoplasm.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The MS-ring is essential as it determines the assembly of all the other structures of a flagellum.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The FliF proteins assemble into a single ring that forms two adjacent loops spanning the cytoplasmic membrane.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">After the incorporation of FliF into the membrane, other proteins like FliG, FliM, and FliN are also incorporated into the cytoplasmic face of the MS-ring.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These proteins are essential for various functions of the flagella like motility and the export of other flagellar component proteins.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The inwards assembly of the basal body involves the formation of a C-ring, which is formed in the cytoplasmic space. Within the C-ring, a flagellar export apparatus is formed in order to export flagella axial proteins through the channel.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&nbsp;A flagellum-specific type III protein export system binds and moves flagellar axial proteins into the central channel of the flagellum.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&nbsp;The next step is the formation of the rod, which is a major component of the basal flagellar body. The rod comprises five proteins attached to the FliF ring at the proximal portion and to the hook at the distal end.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"2-formation-of-the-hook\"><\/span><b>2. Formation of the hook<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Proteins are translocated through the rod into the hook so that the hook grows up to the length of 55 nm, which might differ in different types of cells.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hook formation is induced by a protein FlgD which is lacking in the completed flagella. As hook assembly begins, the rod cap protein is replaced by hook capping proteins.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The FlgD is necessary for the polymerization of subunits into an \u03b1-helical structural arrangement.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hook capping protein, FlgE, is exported from the cytoplasm through the central channel from base to tip.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"3-filament-assembly\"><\/span><b>3. Filament assembly<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The assembly of filament occurs in the presence of the HAP2 pentamer complex that caps the distal end of the filaments as the filament monomers are assembled.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The cap is essential to prevent the diffusion of subunits from the filament and induce a conformational change to enable polymerization.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"types-of-flagella\"><\/span><b>Types of Flagella<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"1-bacterial-flagella\"><\/span><b>1. Bacterial flagella<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Bacterial flagella are helically coiled structures that are slightly longer than the archaeal and eukaryotic flagella.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>They are thinner than <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">eukaryotic flagella.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The diameter is around 20 nanometers.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The number of flagella in bacteria depends on different species that are primarily involved in locomotion. In some cases, the flagella can act as sensory structures and detect changes occurring in the environment.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The length of the flagella might also be different as the filaments are longer than that of archaea and generally possess a left-handed helix with swimming motility as a result of counter-clockwise movement.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"2-archaeal-flagella\"><\/span><b>2. Archaeal flagella<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagellum in archaea is a unique motility apparatus that is different in composition but similar in assembly to bacterial flagellum.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagella occur in almost all the main groupings of the domains like halophiles, methanogens, and thermophiles.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Archaeal flagella are different from bacterial flagella in diameter as archaeal filaments are thinner.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The proteins in the flagella are arranged in a right-handed helix, resulting in the clockwise rotation of the flagella. The speed of the archaeal flagella is more as the clockwise rotation pushes the cell.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hooks in the archaeal flagella are variable in length between the species than those occurring in bacteria.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Different studies have also demonstrated that archaeal flagellar switching mechanism and sensory control is different from that of bacterial flagella.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"3-eukaryotic-flagella\"><\/span><b>3. Eukaryotic flagella<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagella in eukaryotes commonly occur in many algae and some animal cells like sperms.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Eukaryotic flagella are mostly associated with cell motility, cell feeding, and reproduction in eukaryotic animals. In some algae, these also function as sensory antennae.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Eukaryotic flagella are different from bacterial flagella in architecture, composition, mechanism, and assembly. Eukaryotic flagella are composed of several hundred different proteins, whereas bacterial flagella contain about 30 proteins.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Similarly, eukaryotic flagella are dependent on constrained dynein-dependent microtubules sliding for their motility, whereas bacterial flagella are controlled by a rotary motor present at the basal body.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Eukaryotic flagella are formed from microtubule-based centriole where the proteins are targeted from which the axoneme extends. The centriole in a eukaryotic cell is often considered the basal body of the flagella.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"bacterial-flagella-arrangement\"><\/span><b>Bacterial flagella arrangement&nbsp;<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"1-monotrichous\"><\/span><b>1. Monotrichous<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-32570 size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"807\" height=\"303\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Monotrichous-flagella.jpeg\" alt=\"Monotrichous flagella\" class=\"wp-image-32570\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Monotrichous-flagella.jpeg 807w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Monotrichous-flagella-300x113.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Monotrichous-flagella-768x288.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 807px) 100vw, 807px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The monotrichous arrangement of flagella is the presence of a single flagellum in each cell. If the flagellum is present at the polar end, it is called a monotrichous polar distribution.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The mechanism of movement of monotrichous flagella is simple and coordinated by different chemoreceptors that induce motility of the cell.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Different sensory receptors can sense changes in the environment resulting in a transmembrane electrochemical gradient of ions which powers the bacteria flagella motor.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The thrust generated in the motor is transmitted to the hook and to the filament, causing counterclockwise rotation of the flagella.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The counterclockwise movement of the flagella causes the cell to move forward or \u2018run\u2019.&nbsp;<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The change in the direction of the cell in a monotrichous arrangement is due to the counterclockwise movement of the flagella. This movement pulls the bacteria backward and allows reorientation.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Examples of a monotrichous arrangement of flagella can be observed in bacteria like <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> spp., <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Caulobacter crescentus<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, etc.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"2-lophotrichous\"><\/span><b>2. Lophotrichous<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-32571 size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"819\" height=\"285\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lophotrichous-flagella.jpeg\" alt=\"Lophotrichous flagella\" class=\"wp-image-32571\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lophotrichous-flagella.jpeg 819w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lophotrichous-flagella-300x104.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lophotrichous-flagella-768x267.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 819px) 100vw, 819px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Lophotrichous arrangement of flagella is the presence of multiple flagella at the same point in the cell. Most of the time, these flagella occur at the polar end of the cell.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The bases of these flagella are often surrounded by a region of the cell membrane called the polar organelle.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The mechanism of movement of lophotrichous flagella is similar to that of monotrichous flagella in that it is induced by various changes in the surrounding environment.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&nbsp;As there are multiple flagella involved in the movement of lophotrichous flagella, all the flagella need to move in the same direction and with the same speed to ensure smooth movement.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The flagella are controlled by different motors, but since all the motors are triggered by similar stimuli, the thrust generated by the flagella occurs together.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The change in direction is obtained by the subsequent separation of the flagella as a result of the stimuli present due to changes in the environment.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Examples of a lophotrichous arrangement of flagella include <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Spirillium, Pseudomonas fluorescens<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, etc.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"3-amphitrichous\"><\/span><b>3. Amphitrichous<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-32572 size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"861\" height=\"206\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Amphitrichous-flagella.jpeg\" alt=\"Amphitrichous flagella\" class=\"wp-image-32572\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Amphitrichous-flagella.jpeg 861w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Amphitrichous-flagella-300x72.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Amphitrichous-flagella-768x184.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 861px) 100vw, 861px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Amphitrichous distribution of flagella is the presence of either a single flagellum or multiple flagella at either polar ends of the cell.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the case of multiple flagella at the ends, the flagella are present at a region of the cell membrane called the polar organelle.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As compared to the mechanism of movement of other arrangements of flagella, not much is known about the working of the amphitrichous arrangement.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Different studies have indicated that the two flagella operate differently as each of the flagella can move in only one direction in a monotrichous or lophotrichous manner.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Another study had revealed that the two flagella work simultaneously but rotate in opposite directions.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The mechanism of movement is, however, similar to that of other arrangements.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some examples of bacteria with amphitrichous flagella are <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Campylobacter jejuni, Rhodospirillum rubrum,<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Magnetospirillum<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"4-peritrichous\"><\/span><b>4. Peritrichous<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-32573 size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"657\" height=\"440\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Peritrichous-flagella.jpeg\" alt=\"Peritrichous flagella\" class=\"wp-image-32573\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Peritrichous-flagella.jpeg 657w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Peritrichous-flagella-300x201.jpeg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 657px) 100vw, 657px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Peritrichous arrangement of flagella is the arrangement where flagella are present throughout the body of the cell, all of which are directed in different ways.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the peritrichous arrangement, the flagella form a bundle that moves the cell towards the stimuli through the \u2018run\u2019 movement of the cell.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the case of repellent, a phosphorylation cascade is prepared that change the phosphorylation status of the regulator, CheY.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The activated regulator then directly interacts with the motor switch proteins, casing the flagella to rotate in the clockwise direction.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The interaction causes the destruction of bundles and separation of the flagella, which changes the speed and direction of the movement.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Brownian motion of the cell enables them to reorient until a next stimulus is detected randomly.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The examples of peritrichous arrangement of flagella include <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/escherichia-coli-e-coli\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Escherichia coli<\/strong><\/a>, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella,<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Klebsiella<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"functions-of-flagella\"><\/span><b>Functions of Flagella<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagella are the primary structures of locomotion in many bacteria so that bacteria can move towards the most favorable environment. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The movement of bacteria occurs in response to various stimuli which enables them to adapt to different environmental conditions. In eukaryotic cells like sperm, flagella are essential for motility and eventually fertilization.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Flagella play an important role in the colonization of tissue surfaces as a virulence factor to invade host tissue and develop within them.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These are also important for non-pathogenic colonization of surfaces like a plant, soil, or animal surfaces.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In some bacteria, flagella are involved in the nutrient and waste exchange by disturbing the nutrient-poor, waste-rich shell present within the bacteria.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In alkaliphilic bacteria, flagella are sodium-driven which enables the reentry of sodium into the cytoplasm to maintain the neutral cytoplasmic pH.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"examples-of-flagella\"><\/span><b>Examples of Flagella<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"1-flagella-in-helicobacter-pylori\"><\/span><b>1. Flagella in <\/b><b><i>Helicobacter pylori<\/i><\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-32575 size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"576\" height=\"415\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Helicobacter-pylori-flagella.jpeg\" alt=\"Helicobacter pylori flagella\" class=\"wp-image-32575\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Helicobacter-pylori-flagella.jpeg 576w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Helicobacter-pylori-flagella-300x216.jpeg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 576px) 100vw, 576px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Helicobacter pylori<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> is a flagellated bacterium that uses the flagella for its propulsion through the tissue surface.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The bacteria contain about 4-8 unipolar flagella important virulence factors for different diseases caused by the bacteria.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>H. pylori<\/em> flagella result in swimming motility or swarming motility as they can move through the liquid and semisolid media.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The flagella influence different physiological activities of the cell-like inflammation, immune evasion, and colonization in <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">H. pylori.<\/span><\/i><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"2-flagellum-in-human-sperm-cell\"><\/span><b>2. Flagellum in human sperm cell<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-32576 size-full\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"534\" height=\"434\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagellum-in-human-sperm-cell.jpeg\" alt=\"Flagellum in human sperm cell\" class=\"wp-image-32576\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagellum-in-human-sperm-cell.jpeg 534w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagellum-in-human-sperm-cell-300x244.jpeg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 534px) 100vw, 534px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Created with BioRender.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The flagellum in a sperm cell is essential for motility and in vivo fertilization in humans.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Failure to propel the cell and move the flagella might result in the loss of fertilization during sexual reproduction in humans.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The core of the flagella is composed of microtubules arranged in a 9+2 arrangement with structures like dynein regulatory complex, radial spokes, and dynein arms.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">It is also important for the penetration of sperm into the egg during fertilization as it orients the sperm in a specific direction.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"references\"><\/span><b>References<\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th edition. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2000. Section 19.4, Cilia and Flagella: Structure and Movement.&nbsp;Available from: <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK21698\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK21698\/<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Nikhil A. Thomas, Sonia L. Bardy, Ken F. Jarrell, The archaeal flagellum: a different kind of prokaryotic motility structure,&nbsp;<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">FEMS Microbiology Reviews<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, Volume 25, Issue 2, April 2001, Pages 147\u2013174,&nbsp;<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00575.x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00575.x<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Vonderviszt F, Namba K. Structure, Function and Assembly of Flagellar Axial Proteins. In: Madame Curie Bioscience Database [Internet]. Austin (TX): Landes Bioscience; 2000-2013.&nbsp;Available from: <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK6250\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK6250\/<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Samatey, F., Matsunami, H., Imada, K.&nbsp;<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">et al.<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&nbsp;Structure of the bacterial flagellar hook and implication for the molecular universal joint mechanism.&nbsp;<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Nature<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&nbsp;<\/span><b>431,&nbsp;<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">1062\u20131068 (2004). <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nature02997\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nature02997<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Francesco Sala (1972) Structure and Function of Bacterial Flagella, Italian Journal of Zoology, 39:2, 111-118, DOI: 10.1080\/11250007209430052<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ng SY, Chaban B, Jarrell KF. Archaeal flagella, bacterial flagella and type IV pili: a comparison of genes and posttranslational modifications. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol. 2006;11(3-5):167-91. doi: 10.1159\/000094053. PMID: 16983194.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Jonathan Moran, Paul G. McKean, Michael L. Ginger, Eukaryotic Flagella: Variations in Form, Function, and Composition during Evolution,&nbsp;<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">BioScience<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, Volume 64, Issue 12, December 2014, Pages 1103\u20131114,&nbsp;<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/biosci\/biu175\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/biosci\/biu175<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Nakamura, Shuichi, and Tohru Minamino. \u201cFlagella-Driven Motility of Bacteria.\u201d&nbsp;<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Biomolecules<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">&nbsp;vol. 9,7 279. 14 Jul. 2019, doi:10.3390\/biom9070279<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Moens S, Vanderleyden J. Functions of bacterial flagella. Crit Rev Microbiol. 1996;22(2):67-100. doi: 10.3109\/10408419609106456. PMID: 8817078.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Dmitry Apel, Michael G. Surette. Bringing order to a complex molecular machine: The assembly of the bacterial flagella. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) &#8211; Biomembranes. Volume 1778, Issue 9. 2008. Pages 1851-1858. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bbamem.2007.07.005\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bbamem.2007.07.005<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tohru Minamino, Katsumi Imada. The bacterial flagellar motor and its structural diversity. Trends in Microbiology. Volume 23, Issue 5. 2015. Pages 267-274. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tim.2014.12.011.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A flagellum or flagella is a lash or hair-like structure present on the cell body that is important for different physiological functions of the cell. Structure of Flagellum The size &#8230; <a title=\"Flagella: Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/flagella\/\" aria-label=\"Read more about Flagella: Structure, Types, Arrangement, Functions, Examples\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":11,"featured_media":32574,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1572,3177],"tags":[461,5869],"custom":{"td_video":"","featured_image":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Flagella.jpeg","author":{"name":"Anupama Sapkota","avatar":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/0e9c86afc1670c49efeb260138ec905b?s=96&d=mm&r=g"},"categories":[{"term_id":1572,"name":"Basic Microbiology","slug":"basic-microbiology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":1572,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Microbiology is the branch of science that deals with microscopic organisms and their interaction with other microscopic and macroscopic organisms.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Microorganisms are tiny microscopic organisms that are too small to be seen with naked eyes and thus, can only be seen with a microscope. Microorganisms include microscopic organisms like bacteria, fungi, archaea, protozoa, and viruses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Basic microscopy deals with a diverse group of studies that help in research related to the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution, and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microbiology also deals with the structure, function, classification of such organisms, along with exploiting and controlling their activities.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The concept of microbiology began with the discovery of the microscope by Anton Von Leeuwenhoek.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>On the one hand, microbes are used for their unique features which allow the production of antibiotics, amino acids, hormones, and other therapeutic compounds, and also the production of food and food-related products.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microorganisms are also involved in the decomposition of components such as lignocellulosic biomass for second-generation ethanol or biogas.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Similarly, certain genetic features and biochemical abilities of microorganisms make them dangerous for industry (food spoilage) as well as human health.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microbiology, initially, was only associated with pathogenic microorganisms that result in different forms of diseases in different groups of living beings.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>With the establishment of microbiology as a discipline, the application of microorganisms in different areas has also increased.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The use of microorganisms in food and pharmaceuticals has given rise to the branching of microbiology into further disciplines and studies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Thus, over the years, the branch has been classified into further groups like agriculture microbiology, food microbiology, pharmaceutical microbiology, systemic microbiology, etc.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The studies in microbiology have also increased due to the use of microorganisms in different researches as these are easy to manipulate and reproduce when compared to other living organisms.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Studies in microbiology are essential for the discovery of new and advanced methods for the discovery of emerging microorganisms and associated diseases and applications.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microbiology also deals with techniques for the identification of these microorganisms, their classification, and the life cycle.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>All of this allows for a better understanding of microorganisms and their role in maintaining the ecosystem.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microbiology and microorganisms can be applied for the formation of new genetically engineered microorganisms by a process like genetic recombination.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Besides, different microorganisms have found their application in the production of food, industrial products, and antibiotics.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","parent":0,"count":60,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":1572,"category_count":60,"category_description":"<strong>Microbiology is the branch of science that deals with microscopic organisms and their interaction with other microscopic and macroscopic organisms.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Microorganisms are tiny microscopic organisms that are too small to be seen with naked eyes and thus, can only be seen with a microscope. Microorganisms include microscopic organisms like bacteria, fungi, archaea, protozoa, and viruses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Basic microscopy deals with a diverse group of studies that help in research related to the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution, and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microbiology also deals with the structure, function, classification of such organisms, along with exploiting and controlling their activities.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The concept of microbiology began with the discovery of the microscope by Anton Von Leeuwenhoek.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>On the one hand, microbes are used for their unique features which allow the production of antibiotics, amino acids, hormones, and other therapeutic compounds, and also the production of food and food-related products.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microorganisms are also involved in the decomposition of components such as lignocellulosic biomass for second-generation ethanol or biogas.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Similarly, certain genetic features and biochemical abilities of microorganisms make them dangerous for industry (food spoilage) as well as human health.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microbiology, initially, was only associated with pathogenic microorganisms that result in different forms of diseases in different groups of living beings.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>With the establishment of microbiology as a discipline, the application of microorganisms in different areas has also increased.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The use of microorganisms in food and pharmaceuticals has given rise to the branching of microbiology into further disciplines and studies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Thus, over the years, the branch has been classified into further groups like agriculture microbiology, food microbiology, pharmaceutical microbiology, systemic microbiology, etc.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The studies in microbiology have also increased due to the use of microorganisms in different researches as these are easy to manipulate and reproduce when compared to other living organisms.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Studies in microbiology are essential for the discovery of new and advanced methods for the discovery of emerging microorganisms and associated diseases and applications.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microbiology also deals with techniques for the identification of these microorganisms, their classification, and the life cycle.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>All of this allows for a better understanding of microorganisms and their role in maintaining the ecosystem.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Microbiology and microorganisms can be applied for the formation of new genetically engineered microorganisms by a process like genetic recombination.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Besides, different microorganisms have found their application in the production of food, industrial products, and antibiotics.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","cat_name":"Basic Microbiology","category_nicename":"basic-microbiology","category_parent":0},{"term_id":3177,"name":"Cell Biology","slug":"cell-biology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":3177,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Cell biology or cytology is a branch of biology that deals with studies related to the structure and function of a cell-based on the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A detailed study of the cellular structure and function provides a basis for studies related to tissues, organs, and the body.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The number of cells in an organism might differ as some organisms have a single cell while others are made up of billions of cells.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">In the case of single-celled organisms, the singular cell is studied, whereas, for multicellular organisms, individual cells of different tissues are studied.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Initially, only the outer structure of a cell was studied due to the lack of complex microscopic processes.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Over the years, however, advancements in other areas have made it possible to study the internal cellular components of a cell.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Apart from the cell structure and function, cell biology also deals with cell communication and signaling.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology also involves the studying of the cell cycle and cell division, which provides insight into the cellular composition of an organism.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology is also linked with other studies like genetics, molecular biology, cytochemistry, and biochemistry.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cells are distinguished as prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells based on the complexity of the cell.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology enables studying the biochemical mechanisms involved in cell metabolism and different forms of cellular energy.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Focusing on the structural and functional aspects of a single cell allows a detailed understanding of the body overall.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is also easier to perform research on a single cell as it can be modified and observed efficiently.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Techniques in cell biology have advanced over the years with new and improved imaging techniques to observe smaller cellular organelles.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology, together with systemic biology, helps in the answering of complex questions like the relationship between cellular networks, the evolutionary relationship between genomes, and the complexity of the biomolecular composition of different living organisms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","parent":0,"count":107,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":3177,"category_count":107,"category_description":"<strong>Cell biology or cytology is a branch of biology that deals with studies related to the structure and function of a cell-based on the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">A detailed study of the cellular structure and function provides a basis for studies related to tissues, organs, and the body.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The number of cells in an organism might differ as some organisms have a single cell while others are made up of billions of cells.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">In the case of single-celled organisms, the singular cell is studied, whereas, for multicellular organisms, individual cells of different tissues are studied.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Initially, only the outer structure of a cell was studied due to the lack of complex microscopic processes.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Over the years, however, advancements in other areas have made it possible to study the internal cellular components of a cell.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Apart from the cell structure and function, cell biology also deals with cell communication and signaling.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology also involves the studying of the cell cycle and cell division, which provides insight into the cellular composition of an organism.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology is also linked with other studies like genetics, molecular biology, cytochemistry, and biochemistry.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cells are distinguished as prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells based on the complexity of the cell.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology enables studying the biochemical mechanisms involved in cell metabolism and different forms of cellular energy.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Focusing on the structural and functional aspects of a single cell allows a detailed understanding of the body overall.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">It is also easier to perform research on a single cell as it can be modified and observed efficiently.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Techniques in cell biology have advanced over the years with new and improved imaging techniques to observe smaller cellular organelles.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cell biology, together with systemic biology, helps in the answering of complex questions like the relationship between cellular networks, the evolutionary relationship between genomes, and the complexity of the biomolecular composition of different living organisms.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","cat_name":"Cell Biology","category_nicename":"cell-biology","category_parent":0}]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/32565"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/11"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=32565"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/32565\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/32574"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=32565"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=32565"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=32565"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}