{"id":1363,"date":"2022-07-13T09:48:26","date_gmt":"2022-07-13T04:03:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/?p=1363"},"modified":"2023-09-09T19:52:58","modified_gmt":"2023-09-09T14:07:58","slug":"latex-agglutination-test","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/","title":{"rendered":"Latex Agglutination Test"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">When a particulate or insoluble antigen is mixed with its antibody in the presence of electrolytes at a suitable temperature and pH, the particles are clumped or agglutinated.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Agglutination reactions are classified as direct, indirect (passive) and reverse passive agglutination reactions.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Direct Agglutination Test<\/strong>&nbsp;refers to the assays in which the antigen directly agglutinates with the antibody.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Indirect or passive agglutination<\/strong> involves coating of antigen on the surface of a carrier molecule (e.g. RBC, latex or bentonite), such that the antibody binds to the coated antigen and agglutination takes place on the surface of the carrier molecule. They are also referred to as &#8216; particle agglutination test&#8217;.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Reverse passive agglutination test<\/strong> is a special type of particle agglutination test in which the antibody is coated on a carrier molecule which detects antigen in the patient&#8217;s serum.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_65 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title \" >Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Latex Agglutination Test\">Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#objectives-of-latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Objectives of Latex Agglutination Test\">Objectives of Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#principle-of-latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Principle of Latex Agglutination Test\">Principle of Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#requirements-for-latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Requirements&nbsp;for Latex Agglutination Test\">Requirements&nbsp;for Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#procedure-of-latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Procedure of Latex Agglutination Test\">Procedure of Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#results-and-interpretation-of-latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Results and Interpretation&nbsp;of Latex Agglutination Test\">Results and Interpretation&nbsp;of Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#applications-of-latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Applications of Latex Agglutination Test\">Applications of Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#advantages-of-latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Advantages of Latex Agglutination Test\">Advantages of Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#limitations-of-latex-agglutination-test\" title=\"Limitations of Latex Agglutination Test\">Limitations of Latex Agglutination Test<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/#references\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">A group of passive <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/agglutination-introduction-and-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>agglutination<\/strong><\/a> tests carried out by coating either antigen or antibody on an artificial carrier particle, called latex bead are called as latex agglutination test. They may alternatively referred to as <strong>latex fixation test<\/strong> and may be:<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Latex Agglutination Test (LAT) for Antibody Detection:<\/strong> A Passive Agglutination Test with Antigen bound to the surface of latex beads (polystyrene latex particles; 0.8- 1 \u03bcm in diameter).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Latex Agglutination Test (LAT) for Antigen Detection: <\/strong>A Reverse Passive Agglutination Test with Antibody bound to the surface of latex beads.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"objectives-of-latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Objectives of Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">To detect microbial and viral infections, autoimmune diseases, hormones, drugs or serum proteins by agglutination reaction of antigen-antibody.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"principle-of-latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Principle of Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1388\" height=\"663\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Principle-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test.png\" alt=\"Principle of Latex Agglutination Test\" class=\"wp-image-1364\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Principle-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test.png 1388w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Principle-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test-300x143.png 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Principle-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test-768x367.png 768w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Principle-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test-1024x489.png 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1388px) 100vw, 1388px\" \/><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Antibody or antigen molecules can be bound in random alignment to the surface of latex (polystyrene) beads. The number of antibody or antigen molecules bound to each latex particle is large, resulting in a high number of exposed potential binding sites. Antigen or antibody present in a specimen binds to the combining sites of the corresponding antigen\/antibody exposed on the surfaces of the latex beads, forming cross-linked aggregates of latex beads and antigen\/antibody. Large particle size of latex facilitates the visualization of the antigen-antibody reaction.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"requirements-for-latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Requirements&nbsp;for Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">1.5 ml Vials, Microcentrifuge, Pipette, Microtips, Laboratory refrigerator, Glycine saline buffer, Blocking buffer, Antigen for coating, Latex beads, Test antiserum, Glass slides, Beaker, Tooth pick.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"procedure-of-latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Procedure of Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The common procedure for both types of latex test involves coating\u00a0microbeads\u00a0of\u00a0latex with pathogen-specific antigens or antibodies. Patient&#8217;s\u00a0cerebrospinal fluid,\u00a0serum\u00a0or\u00a0urine is mixed with the coated latex particles in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/serial-dilution\/\" data-type=\"post\" data-id=\"27637\">serial dilutions<\/a>\u00a0with\u00a0normal saline\u00a0and observed for\u00a0agglutination\u00a0(clumping).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Coating of Latex (For detection of antibodies)<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">To 20 \u03bcl of latex beads taken in a 1.5 ml vial add 40 \u03bcl of glycine-saline buffer.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Add 60 \u03bcl of antigen to the latex and incubate at 37oC for 2 hours.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Spin down at 5000 rpm for 10 minutes and carefully aspirate the supernatant.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Resuspend the pellet in 1 ml of blocking buffer and spin down at 5000 rpm for 10 minutes.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Repeat the washing once more.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Add 90 \u03bcl of blocking buffer to the pellet, mix well.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Incubate at 4oC, overnight.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Agglutination Test <\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">To 200 \u03bcl of glycine-saline buffer taken in a vial, add 4 \u03bcl of test antisera. (50 times diluted).<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Add 50 \u03bcl of antigen to 50 \u03bcl of diluted antiserum in a 1.5 ml vial, mix well and incubate at room temperature for 10 minutes.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Pipette 10 \u03bcl of coated latex onto a glass slides.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Add 10 \u03bcl of diluted test antiserum to slide A.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Add 10 \u03bcl of antiserum mixed with antigen (from step 1) to B.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Add 10 \u03bcl of glycine-saline buffer to C.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Take a tooth pick and mix the content in each slide. Discard the tooth pick after using in one slide (take a new one for the next slide).<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">After mixing, wait for 2 minutes to observe the result.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"results-and-interpretation-of-latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Results and Interpretation&nbsp;of Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"800\" height=\"420\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Results-and-Interpretation-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test.jpg\" alt=\"Results and Interpretation\u00a0of Latex Agglutination Test\" class=\"wp-image-1365\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Results-and-Interpretation-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test.jpg 800w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Results-and-Interpretation-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test-300x158.jpg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Results-and-Interpretation-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test-768x403.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Depending on the procedure, some reactions are reported as positive or negative and other reactions are graded on a 1+ to 4+ scale, with 2+ usually the minimum amount of agglutination visible in a positive sample without the aid of a microscope.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Positive:<\/strong> Agglutination of the beads evident by clumps in any of the dilutions is considered a positive result.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">It confirms either that the patient&#8217;s body has produced the pathogen-specific antibody (if the test supplied the antigen) or that the specimen contains the pathogen&#8217;s antigen (if the test supplied the antibody).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Negative:<\/strong> No agglutination or formation of clumps.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Absence of pathogen-specific antigen or antibody.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"applications-of-latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Applications of Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Latex tests are very popular in clinical laboratories for detecting antigen to <em>Cryptococcus neoformans<\/em> in cerebrospinal fluid or serum. It is also used for detection of capsular antigens of Pneumococcus, <em>Haemophilus influenzae<\/em> and Meningococcus.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">To confirm the presence of beta-hemolytic <em>Streptococcus<\/em> from culture plates.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Latex tests are continually being developed for a variety of organisms such as for the detection of <em>Clostridium difficile<\/em> toxins A and B, rotavirus, and <em>Escherichia coli<\/em> 0157:H7 from suspect colonies of <em>E coli<\/em>.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Latex agglutination test using latex particles coated with anti-CRP antibodies is the most widely used method employed worldwide for detection of C-reactive protein. Detection limit of CRP by latex agglutination test is 0.6 mg\/dl.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Latex Agglutination Test (LAT) for Antibody Detection is used for detection of ASO (antistreptolysin O antibody).<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"advantages-of-latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Advantages of Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The size of the latex bead (0.8 \u03bcm or larger) enhances the ease with which the agglutination reaction is visualized.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">LAT is one of the most widely used tests at present as it is very simple and rapid. It is believed to have replaced many other serological tests including co agglutination tests.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">They are inexpensive, relatively stable and not subject to cross reactivity with other antibodies.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Levels of bacterial polysaccharides detected by latex agglutination have been shown to be as low as 0.1 ng\/mL.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"limitations-of-latex-agglutination-test\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Limitations of Latex Agglutination Test<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Because the pH, osmolarity, and ionic concentration of the solution influence the amount of binding that occurs, conditions under which latex agglutination procedures are carried out must be carefully standardized.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Some constituents of body fluids, such as rheumatoid factor, have been found to cause false positive reactions in the latex agglutination systems available.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Some agglutination methods require specimens to be pretreated by heating at 56\u00b0C or with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) before testing making it a tedious process.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"references\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>References<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">http:\/\/vlab.amrita.edu\/?sub=3&amp;brch=69&amp;sim=195&amp;cnt=2<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latex_fixation_test<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Singer JM, Edberg SC, Selinger M, Amram M (1979). &#8220;Quality control of the latex-fixation test&#8221;.&nbsp;Am. J. Clin. Pathol.&nbsp;72&nbsp;(4): 591\u20136.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Lydyard, P.M., Whelan,A.,&amp; Fanger,M.W. (2005).Immunology (2 ed.).London: BIOS Scientific Publishers.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Parija S.C. (2012). Textbook of Microbiology &amp; Immunology.(2 ed.). India: Elsevier India.<\/span><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Sastry A.S. &amp; Bhat S.K. (2016). Essentials of Medical Microbiology. New Delhi : Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Latex Agglutination Test A group of passive agglutination tests carried out by coating either antigen or antibody on an artificial carrier particle, called latex bead are called as latex agglutination &#8230; <a title=\"Latex Agglutination Test\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/latex-agglutination-test\/\" aria-label=\"Read more about Latex Agglutination Test\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":1365,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1026],"tags":[2703,2704,2709,2708,2705,2706,2713,2712,2711,2694,2701,2700,2702,2695,2696,2698,2697,2699,2710,2707],"custom":{"td_video":"","featured_image":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/Results-and-Interpretation-of-Latex-Agglutination-Test.jpg","author":{"name":"Sagar Aryal","avatar":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/862472ea06500d4318f1ad82addb608e?s=96&d=mm&r=g"},"categories":[{"term_id":1026,"name":"Immunology","slug":"immunology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":1026,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Immunology is an emerging branch of medical science that deals with studies related to different aspects of the immune system like the cells, structure, function, response against antigens, and disorders.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The immune system consists of a collection of cells, chemicals, processes, and mechanisms that function to protect the body from foreign antigens, such as microbes (organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites), viruses, cancer cells, and toxins.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Beyond, the structural and chemical barriers which protect us from infection, the immune system consists of two lines of defense; innate immunity and adaptive immunity.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The innate immunity represents the first line of defense against the antigen, and it is an antigen-independent defense mechanism used by the host immediately or within hours of encountering an antigen.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">On the other hand, adaptive immunity is antigen-dependent and antigen-specific and, therefore, includes a lag time between exposure to the antigen and maximal response.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Studies conducted in immunology are related to the measurement of physiological functioning of the immune system in both healthy and disease conditions, malfunctioning of the system in the case of disorders, and physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the cells of the immune system.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Immunology is fast becoming an important branch of clinical medicine as it has a close relationship with organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, and even dermatology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Immunology is focused on certain organs of the body like the bone marrow and the lymphatic system and the white blood cells found in the blood.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These cells or organs producing these cells are responsible, directly or indirectly, for the defense mechanism of the body against a pathogenic agent or other antigens.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These cells keep on circulating throughout the body via blood or lymph so that they can detect antigens entering the body from different sources.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">An important aspect of immunology is immunotherapy, where components of the immune system or antigens are used to treat a disease or disorder as a form of treatment.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","parent":0,"count":115,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":1026,"category_count":115,"category_description":"<strong>Immunology is an emerging branch of medical science that deals with studies related to different aspects of the immune system like the cells, structure, function, response against antigens, and disorders.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The immune system consists of a collection of cells, chemicals, processes, and mechanisms that function to protect the body from foreign antigens, such as microbes (organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites), viruses, cancer cells, and toxins.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Beyond, the structural and chemical barriers which protect us from infection, the immune system consists of two lines of defense; innate immunity and adaptive immunity.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The innate immunity represents the first line of defense against the antigen, and it is an antigen-independent defense mechanism used by the host immediately or within hours of encountering an antigen.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">On the other hand, adaptive immunity is antigen-dependent and antigen-specific and, therefore, includes a lag time between exposure to the antigen and maximal response.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Studies conducted in immunology are related to the measurement of physiological functioning of the immune system in both healthy and disease conditions, malfunctioning of the system in the case of disorders, and physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the cells of the immune system.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Immunology is fast becoming an important branch of clinical medicine as it has a close relationship with organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, and even dermatology.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Immunology is focused on certain organs of the body like the bone marrow and the lymphatic system and the white blood cells found in the blood.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These cells or organs producing these cells are responsible, directly or indirectly, for the defense mechanism of the body against a pathogenic agent or other antigens.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">These cells keep on circulating throughout the body via blood or lymph so that they can detect antigens entering the body from different sources.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">An important aspect of immunology is immunotherapy, where components of the immune system or antigens are used to treat a disease or disorder as a form of treatment.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","cat_name":"Immunology","category_nicename":"immunology","category_parent":0}]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1363"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1363"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1363\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/1365"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1363"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1363"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1363"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}