{"id":1182,"date":"2022-09-02T13:20:47","date_gmt":"2022-09-02T07:35:47","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/?p=1182"},"modified":"2022-09-05T13:55:38","modified_gmt":"2022-09-05T08:10:38","slug":"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/","title":{"rendered":"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)- Principle, Steps, Applications"},"content":{"rendered":"<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">PCR is an enzymatic process in which a specific region of DNA is replicated over and over again to yield many copies of a particular sequence.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The most widely used target nucleic acid amplification method is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">This method combines the principles of complementary nucleic acid hybridization with those of nucleic acid replication applied repeatedly through numerous cycles.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">This method is able to amplify a single copy of a <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/nucleic-acids-nucleosides-and-nucleotides\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>nucleic acid<\/strong><\/a> target, often undetectable by standard hybridization methods, and multiply to 10<sup>7 <\/sup>or more copies in a relatively short period.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">This thus provides ample target that can be readily detected by numerous methods.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_65 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title \" >Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #0a0a0a;color:#0a0a0a\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#principle-of-pcr\" title=\"Principle of PCR\">Principle of PCR<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#requirements-for-pcr\" title=\"Requirements for PCR\">Requirements for PCR<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#steps-involved\" title=\"Steps Involved\">Steps Involved<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#a-extraction-and-denaturation-of-target-nucleic-acid\" title=\"A. Extraction and Denaturation of Target Nucleic Acid\">A. Extraction and Denaturation of Target Nucleic Acid<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#b-steps-in-amplification\" title=\"B. Steps in Amplification\">B. Steps in Amplification<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#c-product-analysis\" title=\"C. Product Analysis \">C. Product Analysis <\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#advantages-of-pcr\" title=\"Advantages of PCR\">Advantages of PCR<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#applications-of-pcr\" title=\"Applications of PCR\">Applications of PCR<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/#references\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"principle-of-pcr\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Principle of PCR<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The target sequence of nucleic acid is denatured to single strands, primers specific for each target strand sequence are added, and <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/dna-structure-properties-types-and-functions\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>DNA<\/strong><\/a> polymerase catalyzes the addition of deoxynucleotides to extend and produce new strands complementary to each of the target sequence strands (cycle 1). In cycle 2, both double-stranded products of cycle 1 are denatured and subsequently serve as targets for more primer annealing and extension by DNA polymerase. After 25 to 30 cycles, at least 10<sup>7<\/sup> copies of target DNA may be produced by means of this thermal cycling.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"requirements-for-pcr\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Requirements for PCR<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">A PCR reaction contains the target double-stranded DNA, two primers that hybridize to flanking sequences on opposing strands of the target, all four deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates and a DNA polymerase along with buffer, co-factors of <a href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/enzymes-properties-classification-and-significance\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>enzyme<\/strong><\/a> and water.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Since the reaction periodically becomes heated to high temperature, PCR depends upon using a heat-stable DNA polymerase.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Many such heat-stable enzymes from thermophilic bacteria (bacteria that live in high temperature surroundings) are now available commercially.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The first one and the most commonly used is the Taq polymerase from the thermophilic bacterium <em>Thermus aquaticus<\/em>.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"steps-involved\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Steps Involved<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-1183\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/Polymerase-Chain-Reaction.jpeg\" alt=\"Polymerase Chain Reaction\" width=\"797\" height=\"591\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/Polymerase-Chain-Reaction.jpeg 797w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/Polymerase-Chain-Reaction-300x222.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/Polymerase-Chain-Reaction-768x569.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 797px) 100vw, 797px\" \/><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"a-extraction-and-denaturation-of-target-nucleic-acid\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>A. Extraction and Denaturation of Target Nucleic Acid<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">For PCR, nucleic acid is first extracted (released) from the organism or a clinical sample potentially containing the target organism by heat, chemical, or enzymatic methods.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Once extracted, target nucleic acid is added to the reaction mix containing all the necessary components for PCR (primers, nucleotides, covalent ions, buffer, and enzyme) and placed into a thermal cycler to undergo amplification.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"b-steps-in-amplification\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>B. Steps in Amplification<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Conventional PCR involves 25 to 50 repetitive cycles, with each cycle comprising three sequential reactions:<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Denaturation<\/strong> of target nucleic acid<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Primer annealing<\/strong> to single-strand target nucleic acid extension of primer target duplex.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Extension <\/strong>of the primer-target duplex.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Denaturation<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The reaction mixture is heated to 95\u00b0C for a short time period (about 15\u201330 sec) to denature the target DNA into single strands that can act as templates for DNA synthesis.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Primer annealing<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The mixture is rapidly cooled to a defined temperature which allows the two primers to bind to the sequences on each of the two strands flanking the target DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Primers are short, single-stranded sequences of nucleic acid (i.e., oligonucleotides usually 20 to 30 nucleotides long) selected to specifically hybridize (anneal) to a particular nucleic acid target, essentially functioning like probes.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">This annealing temperature is calculated carefully to ensure that the primers bind only to the desired DNA sequences (usually around 55<sup>o<\/sup>C).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">One primer binds to each strand. The two parental strands do not re-anneal with each other because the primers are in large excess over parental DNA.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Extension<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The temperature of the mixture is raised to 72\u00b0C (usually) and kept at this temperature for a pre-set period of time to allow DNA polymerase to elongate each primer by copying the single-stranded templates.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Annealing of primers to target sequences provides the necessary template format that allows the DNA polymerase to add nucleotides to the 3\u2019 terminus (end) of each primer and extend sequence complementary to the target template<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Taq polymerase is the enzyme commonly used for primer extension, which occurs at 72\u00b0C. This enzyme is used because of its ability to function efficiently at elevated temperatures and to withstand the denaturing temperature of 94\u00b0C through several cycles.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The ability to allow primer annealing and extension to occur at elevated temperatures without detriment to the polymerase increases the stringency of the reaction, thus decreasing the chance for amplification of non-target nucleic acid (i.e., nonspecific amplification).<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The three steps of the PCR cycle are repeated.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Thus in the second cycle, the four strands denature, bind primers and are extended. No other reactants need to be added. The three steps are repeated for a third cycle and so on for a set of additional cycles.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">By the third cycle, some of the PCR products represent DNA sequence only between the two primer sites and the sequence does not extend beyond these sites.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">As more and more reaction cycles are carried out, the double-stranded DNA are synthesized more in number. After 20 cycles, the original DNA has been amplified a million-fold and this rises to a billion fold (1000) million after 30 cycles.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"c-product-analysis\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>C. Product Analysis <\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Gel electrophoresis of the amplified product is commonly employed after amplification.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The amplified DNA is electrophoretically migrated according to their molecular size by performing agarose gel electrophoresis.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">The amplified DNA forms clear bands which can be visualized under ultra-raviolet (UV) light.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-1184\" src=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/PCR.jpg\" alt=\"PCR\" width=\"800\" height=\"420\" srcset=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/PCR.jpg 800w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/PCR-300x158.jpg 300w, https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/PCR-768x403.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"advantages-of-pcr\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Advantages of PCR<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is an extremely simple yet immensely powerful technique.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">It allows enormous amplification of any specific sequence of DNA provided that short sequences either side of it are known.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Allow faster diagnosis and identification while enhancing sensitivity and maintaining specificity.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"applications-of-pcr\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Applications of PCR<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #000000;\">PCR already has very widespread applications, and new uses are being devised on a regular basis.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">PCR can amplify a single DNA molecule from a complex mixture, largely avoiding the need to use DNA cloning to prepare that molecule. Variants of the technique can similarly amplify a specific single RNA molecule from a complex mixture.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">DNA sequencing has been greatly simplified using PCR, and this application is now common.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">By using suitable primers, it is possible to use PCR to create point mutations, deletions and insertions of target DNA which greatly facilitates the analysis of gene expression and function.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">PCR is exquisitely sensitive and can amplify vanishingly small amounts of DNA. Thus, using appropriate primers, very small amounts of specified bacteria and viruses can be detected in tissues, making PCR invaluable for medical diagnosis.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">PCR is now invaluable for characterizing medically important DNA samples. For example, in screening for human genetic diseases, it is rapidly replacing the use of RFLPs.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Because of its extreme sensitivity, PCR is now fundamentally important to forensic medicine. It is even possible to use PCR to amplify the DNA from a single human hair or a microscopic drop of blood left at the scene of a crime to allow detailed characterization.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"references\"><\/span><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>References<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">David Hames and Nigel Hooper (2005). Biochemistry. Third ed. Taylor &amp; Francis Group: New York.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Bailey, W. R., Scott, E. G., Finegold, S. M., &amp; Baron, E. J. (1986).\u00a0Bailey and Scott&#8217;s Diagnostic microbiology. St. Louis: Mosby.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Sastry A.S. &amp; Bhat S.K. (2016). Essentials of Medical Microbiology. New Delhi : Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>PCR is an enzymatic process in which a specific region of DNA is replicated over and over again to yield many copies of a particular sequence. The most widely used &#8230; <a title=\"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)- Principle, Steps, Applications\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-steps-applications\/\" aria-label=\"Read more about Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)- Principle, Steps, Applications\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":1184,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1722],"tags":[2295,2293,2297,2292,2299,2294,2287,2300,2301,2288,2291,2289,2290,2286,2285,2296,2298],"custom":{"td_video":"","featured_image":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/09\/PCR.jpg","author":{"name":"Sagar Aryal","avatar":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/862472ea06500d4318f1ad82addb608e?s=96&d=mm&r=g"},"categories":[{"term_id":1722,"name":"Molecular Biology","slug":"molecular-biology","term_group":0,"term_taxonomy_id":1722,"taxonomy":"category","description":"<strong>Molecular biology is a branch of biology that deals with the composition, structure, and function of cellular molecules like proteins and nucleic acids essential for the cellular functions and mechanisms.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular biology is primarily focused on nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, their structure, composition, expression, and interactions among themselves.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular biology is slowly becoming an important area of research with the discovery that nucleic acids and other biomolecules play a vital role in the normal functioning of the body.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular biology developed as a separate discipline from other branches like biochemistry, genetics, and biophysics.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Over the years, many techniques have been developed in molecular biology; however, researchers tend to use methods and techniques native to genetics.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Common techniques used in molecular biology include X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of nucleic acids.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The discipline focuses on the molecular mechanism of genetic processes so that genes can be used for genetic engineering to isolate, modify, and sequence genes.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Initial studies in molecular biology were involved in the determination of three-dimensional structures of proteins in order to understand their structure and mechanism of action and expression.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Initial studies in molecular biology were based on the rapid growth and readily manipulable genetics of simple bacteria, such as\u00a0<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">E<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">coli<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, and their viruses.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">More recently, not only the fundamental principles but also many of the experimental approaches first developed in prokaryotes have been successfully applied to\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">eukaryotic cells<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Current advances in recombinant DNA technology have made even the determination of the complete sequence of the human genome a feasible project.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Complete genome sequencing of various living beings, including humans, has been done with modern approaches like DNA sequencing techniques and PCR.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Studies of molecular biology have also been applied in clinical research and medical therapies, both of which are covered under gene therapy.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular biology also plays a vital role in studies related to regulations of various parts of a cell, which can then be used to target new drugs and diagnose diseases efficiently.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","parent":0,"count":67,"filter":"raw","cat_ID":1722,"category_count":67,"category_description":"<strong>Molecular biology is a branch of biology that deals with the composition, structure, and function of cellular molecules like proteins and nucleic acids essential for the cellular functions and mechanisms.<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular biology is primarily focused on nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, their structure, composition, expression, and interactions among themselves.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular biology is slowly becoming an important area of research with the discovery that nucleic acids and other biomolecules play a vital role in the normal functioning of the body.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular biology developed as a separate discipline from other branches like biochemistry, genetics, and biophysics.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Over the years, many techniques have been developed in molecular biology; however, researchers tend to use methods and techniques native to genetics.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Common techniques used in molecular biology include X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of nucleic acids.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The discipline focuses on the molecular mechanism of genetic processes so that genes can be used for genetic engineering to isolate, modify, and sequence genes.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Initial studies in molecular biology were involved in the determination of three-dimensional structures of proteins in order to understand their structure and mechanism of action and expression.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Initial studies in molecular biology were based on the rapid growth and readily manipulable genetics of simple bacteria, such as\u00a0<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">E<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">coli<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, and their viruses.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">More recently, not only the fundamental principles but also many of the experimental approaches first developed in prokaryotes have been successfully applied to\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">eukaryotic cells<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Current advances in recombinant DNA technology have made even the determination of the complete sequence of the human genome a feasible project.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Complete genome sequencing of various living beings, including humans, has been done with modern approaches like DNA sequencing techniques and PCR.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Studies of molecular biology have also been applied in clinical research and medical therapies, both of which are covered under gene therapy.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Molecular biology also plays a vital role in studies related to regulations of various parts of a cell, which can then be used to target new drugs and diagnose diseases efficiently.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","cat_name":"Molecular Biology","category_nicename":"molecular-biology","category_parent":0}]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1182"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1182"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1182\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/1184"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1182"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1182"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/microbenotes.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1182"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}